Disproportionality in special education

Disproportionality in special education

education in country or region

Facet of	education
Country	United States of America

Nhyehyɛe a pɛpɛryɛ nnyi mu wɔ nwomasua soronko mu( Disproportionality in special education) yɛ pɛpɛryɛ a onnyi hɔ ma nyimpakuw bi wɔ mbea bi mu na dɛm nyimpakuw no nnya kwan wɔ ndzɛmba bi mu na dwumadzi ne nhyehyɛe bi mu, ne tsitsir wɔ United States hɔn aban sukuu nhyehyɛe no /mu.Nhyehyɛe a pɛpɛryɛ yɛ nnyi mu(Disproportionality) no wɔkyerɛ dɛ ɔyɛ biribi a ɔwɔ famu anaa ɔma ngyinado a ɔbore do (under- or over-representation) ma nyimpakuw a wɔwɔ ɔhaw soronko bi (specific racial), ebusuakuw (ethnic), dza ɔkasafa sikasɛm ho(socioeconomic), anaa wɔ amanbrɛ mu(culturally) na kasahorow mu no ɔwɔ nsesa kakra wɔ ne dwumadzi ho (linguistically diverse) -(CLD) ne kuw ahorow wɔ nwomasua soronko mu kyen dza ogyina hɔ ma esuafo nyinara.Bebiara abofra bi fri anaa ebusuakuw a ofri mu nya nsusuando wɔ no do dɛ wobotum akyerɛ dɛ ɔwɔ hia ma nwomasua soronko no ho nhyehyɛe bi, wɔ kyerɛ hɔn adwen faa akwan a wonye hɔn bedzi dwuma wɔ akwan kor mu (fairness), pɛpɛryɛ (equity), na nsusuando a obotum akɔ esuafo hɔn do wɔ dza obɛfri nwomasua ne nhyehyɛe mu aba no.

Identification

Ehiadze beberee wɔ hɔ fa akwan a wɔdze kyerɛ esuafo a wɔwɔ hia nsɛm wɔ nwomasua soronko mu. Dza ɔkyerɛ esuafo a wɔ bor do no (over-identification of students) kyerɛ ehiadze a ɔfa esuafo a wɔyɛ ebibifi (students of color), ne tsitsir yɛ African American esuafo, wɔdze hɔn hyɛ nwomasua soronko bi mu wɔ kwan a wɔ ma wotua sika aboadzen kyen abrofo esuafo no, na dɛm yi ma wotum hwɛ esuafo no wɔ akwan bi do (potential stigmatization)na wonya nsusuando bɔne(negative impacts) wɔ hɔn nwomasua akwan mu.[1] Esuafo a wɔyɛ under-identification kyerɛ tsebea a esuafo Ebibifo hɔn ho ngye hɔn tsebea fofor no mu na wonya nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko kyen esuafo abrofo a wɔ da dɛm suban no edzi, iyi mma esuafo nnya mboa ɔwɔ dɛ wonya ama w'abɔ mbɔdzen wɔ sukuu mu.[1]

Esuafo a wɔyɛ Ebibifo nso nya ɔhaw ɔyɛ (misidentification for special education) wɔdze hyɛ nwomasua nhyɛhyɛe soronko mu a ɔyɛ dza wonnhia osiandɛ wohu hɔn wɔ akwan a onnye hɔn nsɛ mu dɛ wɔwɔ suban nye nkitahodzi bi a no ho hia wɔ dɛm bea no( socially undesirable classifications) ibi nye emotional disturbance na intellectual disabilities wɔ aber a esuafo nnya nhwehwɛmu biara a ɔkyerɛ dɛ wɔwɔ dɛm ɔhaw no, ɔma obiara ngyina mu mma esuafo yi na esuafo yi nnya mboa a wohia.[1]

Monitoring

Section 300.646 ma Part B ma dza ɔyɛ Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) wɔ yɛ dɛm dwumadzi nhyehyɛe yi dɛ wɔdze bɔhwɛ state biara a obenya sika dɛ wɔbɔhwɛ sɛ nsisii nsɛm biara a ɔfa nkorɔfo hɔn nyimpasu dɛ wɔyɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofo (race ) anaa nkorɔfo a hɔn mbeambea a wofri sɛ wɔ ba hɔn state na Local Education Agencies (LEAs) ma dza ogyina hɔn state ne nhyehyɛe ho fa akwan a wɔdze kyerɛ kyerɛ mboframba hɔn mu dɛ wɔyɛ mboframba a wɔwɔ yareba biara a, ne tsitsir yɛ hɔn gyinabea wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu ma dɛm mboframba yi, na mpɛn a biribi botum esi(incidence),mpɛn dodow a dɛm adze kor no besi(duration), na akwan ahorow a wɔdze tsea a woyi fri hɔn do, ibi akwan a wɔdze ma esuafo frii sukuu kosi mpɛn bi(suspensions) na akwan bi nso a wɔdze yi esuafo edzi fri sukuu no mu koraa (expulsions).

Wɔ part B ma IDEA, state biara nya sika, na United States Secretary of the Interior ɔwɔ dɛ ɔdze dza wɔgyegye na nsɔhwɛ ho nsɛm a w'aboa no a ɔkyerɛ dza ohia fa nkyekyɛmu a ogyina nyimpasu dɛ wɔyɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofo (race ) anaa nkorɔfo hɔn mbea a wofri wɔ hɔn State na LEAs ma State no." Wɔ Section 300.64 ma Act, ɔwɔ dɛ State ahorow yɛ nhwehwɛmu wɔ nsɛm a ohia mu ma significant disproportionality wɔ mbea a ɔkekaho yi:

• Wɔbɔ hwehwɛ mboframba a wɔwɔ ahorow bi na dza ɔhaw hɔn,

• Bea a wɔdze abofraba no bɔhyɛ wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu, na

• Akwan biara a wɔdze yi esuafo fri sukuu mu kosi mber bi anaa dɛ wobeyi esuafo edzi koraa efri sukuu na wɔbeyɛ akosi aber ben

IDEA ne nhyehyɛe kyerɛ dɛ state ahorow ɔwɔ dɛ wɔgyegye na wɔyɛ nhwehwɛmu fa nsɛm a w'aboa no fa nwomasua soronko ho fa nkorɔfo hɔn nyimpasu dɛ wɔyɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofo (race ) anaa nkorɔfo ebusuakuw wɔ district ngyinae biara.[2]

State monitoring

State ahorow ahwehwɛ mu na w'ayɛ nhyehyedze afa nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi (disproportionality) wɔ nwomasua soronko (special education) mu w'akwan a ɔfa dza wohia wɔ IDEA ne nhyehyɛmu na ne Annual Performance Reports (APRs).[3] Wɔ gyinabea a  ɔyɛ district no, ɔwɔ dɛ state ahorow gyegye na wɔyɛ nhwehwɛmu wɔ nwomasua soronko (special education) ne ho nsɛm a w'aboa no ho fa Abrofo na Ebibifo ho na ebusuakuw ahorow a wɔfri mu.[3] Ohia dɛ wɔdze hɔn nhwehwɛmu bɔ to gua afa ndzɛmba tsitsir a ɔfa disproportionality a wɔdze ma esuafo a wɔwɔ yarba anaa ehiadze bi na ne nkyekyɛmu wɔ district ahorow mu a ɔrekyerɛ akwan a wonnfa pɛpɛryɛ ndzi dwuma mma hɔn wɔ nwomasua soronko mu wɔ abrofo na Ebibifo hɔn mu na ebusuakuw ahorow a wo fri mu.[3]

Sɛ state ahorow bi hu dza ɔkyerɛ dɛ ɔyɛ  nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi(disproportionality) wɔ ngyinado a ɔfa dɛ wɔyɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofo(race) na ebusuakuw a wofri mu (ethnicity), Dza ɔwɔ Section 300.464 ma Part B ma IDEA kyerɛ mu dɛ, ɔwɔ dɛ wɔyɛ dza odzidzi do yi:

• Wɔyɛ nhyehyɛe a wɔdze bɛyɛ nhwehwɛmu afe biara na, wɔ akwanpa mu no, w'ayɛ dwumadzi no nhyehyɛe ahorow wɔ mber bi mu (revision of policies),ndzeyɛe ahorow (practices),na akwan a wɔbɛfa do dze akyerɛkyerɛ anaa gyinabea tsitsir a wɔdze bɛhyɛ mu wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu.

• LEA ɔwɔ dɛ wɔdze hɔn dwumadzi ne nhyehyɛe bɔto gua,ndzeyɛe ahorow(practices), na akwan ahorow a wɔbɛfa do.

• State Secretary of the Interior bɛhwehwɛ dɛ LEA biara a w'eyi no esi hɔ besie sika dodow bi na ɔdze ama nhyehyɛe a ntsease wɔ mu (comprehensive), wɔbɔbɔ mu ayɛ dwumadzi nhyehyɛe a no ho hia(coordinated intervention services) ama wɔdze ahwɛ siantsir ɔkɔ fa nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi ba (disproportionality).

• LEA edwumakuw no ɔwɔ dɛ ɔhwehwɛ na ɔkasafa akwan a ɔdze nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi (disproportionality) na sikasɛm ho dwumadzi (economic), amanbrɛ nhyehyɛe (cultural), anaa kasahorow mu akwansidze(linguistic barriers) dze akwanpa a wɔdze kyerɛ mu anaa wɔdze dwumadzi to n'akwan mu na nhyehyɛe biara mu, ndzeyɛe ahorow, anaa akwan ɔdze nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi ba.

• Ɔwɔ dɛ LEA edwumakuw no hwehwɛ dwumadzi nhyehyɛe, ndzeyɛe ahorow, anaa akwan ɔdze nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi .[2]

State ahorow onnyi dɛ wɔhwehwɛ LEA edwumakuw a ɔdze nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi (disproportionality) sɛ LEA bor ɔhaw a wosusu fa (risk ratio threshold) ho na ibom ɔda mpontu akwan ɔtɔ asowa mu edzi wɔ akwan a wɔdze ɔhaw no bɛba famu ama kuw anaa dza hɔn nhwehwɛmu no yɛ edwuma fa ho no wɔ afe ebien a w'abesin no mu nyinara.[4]

Measurement

Wɔdze nhyehyɛdze a wɔdze yɛ nhwehwɛmu (Analytical techniques) edzi dwuma wɔ nhwehwɛmu a ɔfa nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi (disproportionality) wɔ nwomasua soronko mu (special education), ibi nye akwan a wɔdze susu ɔhaw (risk ratio), regression, na multilevel regression.Akwan a wɔdze susu ɔhaw (risk ratio) nye dɛ wɔdze hɔn kyerɛ odds, odds ratios, relative risks, na risk indices ratios.Regression models susu akwan a wɔdze biribi botum esi n'anamu probability of placement) anaa nwomasua soronko ne dwumadzi nhyehyɛe(special education service) bi a ɔyɛ edwuma dɛ dza otum gyina hɔ na odzi dwuma(independent variables). Multilevel regression boaboa esuafo ano wɔ sukuu ahorow mu, district ahorow mu, anaa nkurow mu ama wɔdze ayɛ nkontaabu ama dza wosusu wɔ mantam hɔ anaa dza ɔwɔ hɔn ntsemu(within- and between-cluster).Nhwehwɛmu a w'ehu afa nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi (disproportionality) wɔ nwomasua soronko mu (special education) wɔ nsesa beberee wɔ hɔn ho fa esuadze pii mu osian dza ndzɛmba bi a ibi nye dɛ wɔdze nsɛm a w'aboaboa ano wɔ gyinabea ahorow mu, ibi nye esuafo kakra a wɔ faa hɔn frii sukuu gyinabea ahorow na mfe ahorow mu, na wɔdze nhyehyɛdze ahorow to akwan mu dze yɛ nhwehwɛmu a ɔdze dwumadzi iyiano beberee bɔto gua.[5]

Qualitative research dze deductive na inductive methods dze dwuma , ibi nye buukuu a ɔyɛ development of codebooks a n'enyisoadzehun gyina conceptual framework na akenkan nhyehyɛe a ɔwɔ hɔ dadaadaa(literature) wɔ nwomasua dwumadzi nhyehyɛe ho na nhwehwɛmu a w'ehu afa nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi (disproportionality).[6] Quantitative research enya coded articles a ɔwɔ ngyinado wɔ nhwehwɛmu a wɔdze dzii dwuma ahorow, ibi nye risk ratio, regression anaa multi-regression.[6]

Effectiveness of current practice

Mbea beberee wɔ hɔ a ohia mpontu wɔ ndzeyɛe a ɔrekɔdo dɛm aber yi mu fa akwan a wɔdze nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi . Dza wɔkyerɛ mu no nda hɔ pefee aber biara na akwan a wɔdze nhyehyɛe a ɔfa IDEA ho U.S. Department of Education and Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) dze ma hɔn, iyi keka hɔn adwen bɔ mu wɔ state na local gyinabea ahorow mu na ɔdze mpontu mu akwansidze wɔ akwan a wɔdze besiw ɔhaw n'ano kwan.[3]Wɔ sanso wɔ state na district compliance a ɔdze procedural aspects ma dza ɔkyerɛ nwomasua soronko kyen dza wɔdze kasa fa nhyehyɛe mu fapim a ɔboa ma nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi(disproportionality) ,na osusu ɔhaw no wɔ akwan a ɔwɔ famu koraa na ɔdze akwansidze ba akwan a esuafo benya mboa.[3] Ibom nhwehwɛmu kyerɛ dɛ Ebibifo esuafo no hɔn ntsemugyinafo ma ɔbordo wɔ mbea a wonya ahokyer wɔ mu, OSEP no nwomasua bea nnka ho wɔ akwan a wɔhwehwɛ na wɔhyehyɛ dza ogyina hɔ ma nsisii nsɛm a nyimpakuw no fa mu no.[7]

Federal edwumakuw ne nkyerɛkyerɛmu fa IDEA statutory language nkyerɛ dɛ edwuma no nnkɔ dɛ ma wɔ kyerɛ no na ibom nhwehwɛmu kɔ do aber biara wɔ nwomasua soronko ne nhwehwɛmu.[7] Nsesa nhyehyɛe a wɔyɛ da IDEA ho wɔ afe 1997 na 2004 gye too mu wɔ akwan a nkyekyɛmu kɔ do wɔ Ebibifo na Abrofo mu na ebusuakuw ahorow a nkorɔfo fri mu no, ibom federal nkyerɛkyerɛmu wɔ afe 2004 ne dza ɔhwehwɛ no aka hɔn adwen abɔmu  wɔ State na LEA gyinabea ahorow.[7] Nhwehwɛmu nsɛm a w'aboa no kyerɛ mu dɛ federal hɔn nkyerɛkyerɛmu ma IDEA wɔ afe 2004, dwumadzi no ho mbra a ɔda ho(regulatory guidelines), na akwan a wɔdze esisie dza ogyina hɔ ma dza wɔdze yɛ nhwehwɛmu na akwan a wɔdze nhyehyɛe a wɔdze ato gua nyinara bedzi dwuma no annyɛ edwuma dɛ ma wɔrehwehwɛ dɛ obesi wɔ nkyekyɛmu a ɔfa Ebibifo na Abrofo ho na ebusuakuw ahorow a wofri mu.[7]

Significant disproportionality

Sɛ dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu tsitsir a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi( significant disproportionality) a ɔfa Abrofo anaa Ebibifo anaa ebusuakuw ahorow no sɛ wo hu dɛm yi a, nna dza ɔkasafa Section 300.646 ma Part B ma IDEA,  state ahorow ɔwɔ dɛ afe biara wɔyɛ nhwehwɛmu wɔ hɔn dwumadzi nhyehyɛdze ho, ndzeyɛe ahorow, na akwan a ɔfa mbea a wɔdze dɛm mboframba hyehyɛ wɔ nwomasua dwumadzibea mu(dza ɔka ho yɛ akwan a wɔdze tsea ama wɔdze dwumadzi biara no yie na ɔwɔ dɛ LEA dze dwumadzi no ho iyiano bɔto gua fa nsesa biara ho.[citation needed]

Dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu tsitsir a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi( significant disproportionality) , dɛ ma IDEA Section 618(d) kyerɛ mu no, ɔyɛ kwan kɛse a ɔda hɔn ma akwan a wɔdze ma nyimpakuw bi nya akwanya kyen nyimpakuw bi osian nsusunyɛ a ɔda hɔn mu dɛ Abrofo anaa Ebibifo na mbea a wofri wɔ state na LEAs a ogyina hɔ ma akwan a wɔhwɛ mboframba a wɔwɔ ehiadze bi, akwan a wɔdze hɔn hyɛ sukuu dwumadzi ne nhyehyɛe mu, mber a dza osii no nyaa na akwan a wɔdze fa do tsea hɔn.[4]Ma ogyina hɔ ma dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi representation, dɛ ma IDEA Section 616(a)(3)(C) kyerɛ mu no, ɔkyerɛ dza ogyina hɔ ma dza obordo anaa dza wosusu dɛ ɔwɔ famu fa Abrofo anaa Ebibifo na ebusua kuw a wofri mu wɔ nwomasua soronko mu na dwumadzi a ɔkekaho a ɔyɛ ofri akwan a w'annyɛ nhwehwɛmu na nkyerɛkyerɛ yie.[4]Dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu tsitsir a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi( significant disproportionality) ne mbra a w'ahyehye afa dwumadzi no ho onnfa ho anaa onnkasa nfa nhyehyɛdze a ɔyɛ nhwehwɛmu fa akwan a ogyina hɔ ma pɛpɛryɛ a onnyi hɔ ma nyimpakuw bi osiandɛ w'annyɛ nhwehwɛmu papa annfa ho wɔ IDEA Section 616(a)(3)(C) n'ase.[4]

IDEA edwumakuw ne section 618(d) hwehwɛ dɛ state ahorow bɛgye na w'ayɛ nsɛm a w'aboa no dɛ wɔdze bekyerɛ dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu tsitsir a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi( significant disproportionality) a ɔkasa fa Abrofo anaa Ebibifo ho (race) na ebusuakuw a wofri mu ba wɔ state mu na LEA ahorow ma state na wɔdze obu ma nhwehwɛmu nsɛm a ɔfa mboframba a wɔwɔ ehiadze,na wɔ akwan a wɔdze hɔn ahyɛ ne tsitsir nwomasua nhyehyɛe bia mu, mpɛn a biribi botum esi(incidence), mpɛn dodow a dɛm adze kor no besi(duration), na akwan ahorow a wɔdze tsea, ibi nye akwan bi nso a wɔdze yi esuafo edzi fri sukuu no mu koraa (expulsions).[4]

Sɛ state ahorow hu dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu tsitsir a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi( significant disproportionality) a ɔkasa fa Abrofo anaa Ebibifo ho (race) na ebusuakuw a wofri mu ba ɔwɔ dɛ wosi ngyinae beberee fa ho wɔ Section 300.646 of Part B of IDEA:

• Wɔyɛ nhyehyɛe a wɔdze bɛyɛ nhwehwɛmu afe biara na, wɔ akwanpa mu no, w'ayɛ dwumadzi no nhyehyɛe ahorow wɔ mber bi mu (revision of policies),ndzeyɛe ahorow (practices), na nhyehyɛe a wɔdze bohu esuafo a wɔwɔ ehiadze bi ama w'etum edzi dza    Act ne nhyehyɛe no rehwehwɛ nyinara.

• LEA ɔwɔ dɛ wɔdze hɔn dwumadzi ne nhyehyɛe bɔto gua,ndzeyɛe ahorow(practices), na akwan ahorow a wɔbɛfa do.

• Wɔ dɛ ɔma nhyehyɛe a ntsease wɔ mu, wɔbɔ mu ayɛ dwumadzi nhyehyɛe a no ho hia, ibi nye dɛ wɔbɛma hɔn mpontu dwuma ɔda n'akwan mu na nwomasua dwumadzi na suban mu nhwehwɛmu.

• LEA edwumakuw no ɔwɔ dɛ ɔhwehwɛ na ɔkasafa akwan a ɔdze nkyekyɛmu a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi.

• LEA ɔwɔ dɛ ɔkasafa dwumadzi nhyehyɛe ho, ndzeyɛe ahorow(practices), anaa nhyehyɛe a ɔkyerɛ ma ɔdze dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu tsitsir a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi( significant disproportionality)no ho nsɛm ba.[8]

Racial/ethnic disproportionality

Dza ɔyɛ asɛmtsir a ɔdze nkyekyɛmu ba akwan a Abrofo nye Ebibifo dzi nkitaho anaa mbea a nkorɔfo fri na ɔkyerɛ akwan a wɔ nye hɔn fa do ho wɔ nwomasua soronko mu(special education) no wɔ ngyinado wɔ akwan a wɔdze dwen dɛ nyimpa nnkotum abɔ mbɔdzen wɔ dwumadzi bi no fa adwenpɔw a wɔwɔ man Ebibifo na Abrofo na hɔn eguadzi nhyehyɛe no mu nsɛm, ndzɛmba a wɔdze bɔbɔ adzesuabea ho ban nnye hɔ,akyerɛkyerɛfo hɔn adwenpɔw a wɔwɔ ma dza esuafo botum ayɛ, na dwumadzi nhyehyɛe na akwan a wɔdze boa a onnyi hɔ ma sukuu ahorow.[9] Eguadzi ho nsɛm na mbeambea ne nhyehyɛe ahorow (demographic variables),[6] amanbrɛ ahorow a onnyɛ pɛ, akwanya kor nnyi nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu, na Abrofo no wɔ akwan bɔne bi a wɔdze hwɛ Ebibifo no tum gyina hɔ ma nsisii akwan a wɔdze esuafo a wonnyi tumi no fa do.[3]Esuafo ahorow a wɔfri mbea a Abrofo hwɛ hɔn wɔ akwan bɔne do(racial), amanbrɛ mu (cultural), ebusuakuw bi mu(ethnic), na kasahorow a ɔfri aman a wonnyi tumi mu no mpɛn pii no wonya dzin dɛ wɔwɔ ehiadze wɔ akwan beberee mu na woyi hɔn fri nwomasua nhyehyɛe akɛse mu.Dza ɔka ho no, esuafo a hɔn ekyir nnyi bi anaa esuafo Ebibifo mpɛn pii no akyerɛkyerɛfo a wonnya ntsetsee papa na wɔkyerɛ hɔn adze wɔ sukuu ahorow a wonnyi nsiesie papa mu na wosua adze wɔ mu.[10]

Akwan a w'ayɛ nhyehyɛdze afa Ebibifo na Abrofo ho wɔ United States no ho hia wɔ akwan a wobenya ntsease wɔ nwomasua soronko ne nhyehyɛe mu.[6] Eguadzi ho nsɛm, nwomasua mu gyinabea na sukuu nhyehyɛe a onnfa nkyekyɛmu mba ama w'akodur nsisii nsɛm a wɔdze nyimpakuw bi fa mu.[6]Hɔn a wogyina mu ma Ebibifo esuafo no dɔɔso na ɔma Ebibifo esuafo anaa hɔn a wofri mbeambea hɔn ekuw ahorow a w'akeka hɔn ho abɔmu no kɔ sor a wosusu dɛ wɔyɛ kɛse wɔ hɔn state ne nkorɔfo hɔn dodow.[7] Sukuu mu mpanyinfo a wɔ fa adwen dze siesie sukuu no (ono nye, dza wɔkyerɛ dɛ wonfa ndzi dwuma (referrals), nsɔhwɛ ahorow (assessment), na nhyiamu ahorow a ɔkyerɛ sɛ wobotum enya kwan anaa wonntum nnya kwan wɔ akwan a wɔdze hɔn bɛhyɛ wɔ nwomasua soronko ne dwumadzi mu) gyina mu siesie nsisii nsɛm a nyimpakuw bi fa mu no.[6]

Mpɛn pii no Ebibifo esuafo kɔ sukuu a wonnyi adzesua ho akadze papa na wonnya akwanya papa biara, na iyi ma esuafo a wonnya dza wohia ama hɔn adzesua ako do no twer nwomasua soronko ne nhyehyɛe no.[6] Wɔ tsetse nsɛm mu no ekuw a wonnhwɛ hɔn yie(underserved groups) wɔ America, ibi nye African Americans, Latinos, na Native Americans, wonnyɛ pɛpɛryɛ wɔ dza ogyina ma hɔn mu wɔ dza osi beberee wɔ ehiadze nhyehyɛe mu(ono nye, intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, traumatic brain injury, language disorder, behavior disorders, learning disabilities, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder),na dza ɔyɛ sukuu amanbrɛ na amanbrɛ mu abakɔsɛm ma esuafo na hɔn ebusuakuw a w'aka abɔmu na wɔ dwen hɔn ho that wɔwɔ hɔn mu. Nsisii akwan a wɔdze ma Ebibifo na nkorɔfo a wofri mbeambea ahorow wohu hɔn mpɛn kakra bi wɔ ehiadze tsebea a "no mu yɛ dzen"(ibi nye, hɔn asowa mu haw hɔn ma wonntse nsɛm yie(hearing impairment), hɔn enyiwa haw hɔn ma wonnhu ndzɛmba yie (visual impairment), anaa yareba bi a ɔhaw dompe no munhyehyɛe ma ɔdze nsusuando brɛ mboframba anaa mpanyinfo hɔn nwomasua dwumadzi mu anaa hɔn daa abrabɔ(orthopedic impairment) na beberee no wɔ ehiadze anaa yareba nhyehyɛe a"no mu gow" (ibi nye, intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance, or learning disabilities).[7]

Ankorankor, ngyinado (contextual), na nhyehyɛe a ɔdze nsisii nsɛm wɔ nyimpakuw bi mu wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko mu. Ntsease wɔ nsisii nsɛm wɔ nyimpakuw bi mu wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko mu no ɔwɔ dɛ ɔboa dza ɔdze dɛm ɔhaw no ba n'ano wɔ nhyehyɛe fofor bi mu, no mu kor biara dze ɔhaw kɛse ba. Dɛm nhyehyɛe a w'akyekyɛ mu da ɔhaw a ɔyɛ akwansidze ma esuafo Ebibifo:

Teacher bias

Nkitahodzi a ɔda ebusua ahorow mu na sukuu ahorow mu botum enya nsesa wɔ hɔn ho fri sukuu kor dze kɔ dza ɔka ho no, ɔmma wonnya adze a wɔrehwehwɛ wɔ nsisii nsɛm a nyimpakuw bi fa mu no wɔ akwan a ɔtsen mu.[5] Ɔkyerɛkyerɛnyi a odzi afa kor n'asɛm kyen afa kor tum dze  nsisii nsɛm a nyimpakuw bi fa mu ba wɔ akwan a akyerɛkyerɛfo nnya ntsease yie wɔ amanbrɛ nsɛm mu, kasahorow mu, na  kasahorow no mu nsesa beberee  (dialectical differences) dɛ hɔnho wɔ famu, iyi ma wɔhu Ebibifo esuafo no dɛ wɔwɔ adzesua no mu ehiadze pii.[3][1][10][11] Dɛm ngyinae a wɔdze sisi nyimpa bi no botum atwe hɔn adwen fri ndzɛmba ahorow a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw wɔ hɔn tsebea mu na iyi dze nsusuando ba adzesua dwumadzi mu na ehiadze ahorow bi wɔ nyimpakuw tsitsir bi hɔn mu.[1]

Nkyerɛkyerɛmu a wɔdze ma akyerɛkyerɛfo ahorow a wɔwɔ amanbrɛ nhyehyɛe ahorow nnhyɛ esuafo Ebibifo no nkuran osiandɛ dɛm no ma wonya asɛm wɔ ekuw a wɔyɛ akyerɛkyerɛfo hɔn enyim.[10] Dza ɔka ho nye dɛ esuafo Ebibifo no agye dzin, akwan wonnfa nnhu dɛm esuafo yi (under-identification) bɔkɔ biom mpo wɔ aber a wokotsia dɛm adzesua mu mbɔdzenbɔ yi kyen Abrofo esuafo.[11]Ɔwɔ dɛ akyerɛkyerɛfo hwɛ esuafo hɔn ho nsɛm mu yie, ɔwɔ dɛ wɔdze nhyehyɛe a wɔdze besiesie nsɛm yie ba hɔn sukuudanmu, Ɔwɔ dɛ wonya nkyerɛkyerɛ wɔ esuafo ahorow hɔn amanbrɛ ne nhyehyɛe na ndzeyɛe mu, na ɔwɔ dɛ wɔ ma akwan a awofo na nkurow no wɔdze hɔnho hyɛ nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu no kɔ sor.[12]

School policies and procedures

Nhyehyɛ a wɔdze kyerɛ nyimpa bi na wɔdze hwehwɛ esuafo ma nwomasua soronko nya dza ɔma wodzi afa bi hɔn asɛm kyen afa fofor bi na atanbu ɔkasafa akwan dodow a wogyina mu ma esuafo Ebibifo.[13][14] Nsisii nsɛm a wɔdze ma nyimpakuw bi nso yɛ botum ehu bi wɔ sukuu nhyehyɛ a wɔdze tsentsen esuafo wɔ aber a wɔ ma esuafo Ebibifo a wɔwɔ ehiadze no fa akwan a no mu yɛ hyew yie mu.[12] Ndzeyɛe a wɔdze ndzɛmba a ɔwɔ dɛ nkorɔfo dzi do na dza sukuu nhyehyɛe no nhwehwɛ botum ayɛ dɛ wɔhwehwɛ dɛ esuafo Ebibifo benya akwankyerɛ ho nhyehyɛe a ɔwɔ famu anaa no nnyɛ dzen, na dɛm yi ma esuafo a wɔwɔ dɛm ekuw yi mu no mbɔ mbɔdzen wɔ hɔn dwumadzi mu na a hɔn a wobotum nye hɔn ahyɛ nwomasua fofor mu.[14]Dza ɔka ho nye, akwan a sukuu ahorow kyɛ adzesua ho akadze dze nsisii brɛ nyimpakuw bi wɔ dɛm sukuu a ɔwɔ adzesua ho akadze kakra bi no, mpɛn pii no mbea ahorow a wɔwɔ ebibifo mboframba no nnya dza ohia, ntsi ɔma wɔdze esuafo no hyɛ nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko no mu dɛ ɔbɛyɛ akwanya a wɔdze benya sika.[9]Sukuu beberee nso dze hɔn enyiwa kyerɛ akwan a wɔdze dzi mbra do, ne tsitsir wɔ IDEA ne nhyehyɛe mu, na iyi ma dza wɔdze hɔn enyiwa si do no yɛ kakrabi wɔ akwan a ɔwɔ dɛ wɔdze dzi dwuma wɔ akwan a wɔbɔhwɛ hɔn a ɔwɔ dɛ wonya nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko, kyen dɛ wɔbɛkasa afa nhyehyɛe akwan a otum dze nsisii brɛ nyimpakuw bi.[13]

Environmental factors

Esuafo Ebibifo beberee a w'eyi hɔn dɛ wonye hɔn bɛhyɛ nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko mu no frii bebia hɔn nkurow nnyi bi na wɔtaa hyia ewudze ndzɛmba wɔ hɔn mantam (ibi nye, lead, mercury, na ndur bi a ɔdze ɔhaw brɛ nyimpa), na wɔkyerɛ dɛ ɔdze adzesua mu ɔhaw brɛ nkorɔfo na obotum dze nsusuando bɔne abrɛ hɔn adzesua dwumadzi na hɔn mpontu.[11]Ɔwɔ dɛ hɔn nsa ka akadze a oboboa ma hɔn adwen mu mpontu akɔ yie (ibi nye, apɔwmudzen ho nhyehyɛe papa(healthcare), ɔwɔ dɛ wo dzidzi yie(good nutrition),ɔwɔ dɛ mbroframba no nya nwomasua nhyehyɛe papa wɔ hɔ ahyɛse sukuu mu (high-quality early childhood education), na (early childhood intervention) ɔwɔ dɛ mboframba no nya ahyɛse sukuu nhyehyɛe a ɔbɔboa hɔn) mpɛn pii no ɔyɛ inequitable, na sɛ w'ennya dɛm dwumadzi akadze yi a ɔdze ɔhaw a no mu yɛ dzen brɛ hɔn wɔ abrabɔ mu, na dza wɔdze gyina mu wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu ma Esuafo no dɔɔso.[1]

Systemic issues

Nhyehyɛe a pɛpɛryɛ nnyi mu dze esuafo Ebibifo hyɛ ɔhaw kɛse mu wɔ nwomasua soronko ne nhyehyɛdze mu. Akwan a ɔma dza ogyina mu ma esuafo Ebibifo no dɔɔso wɔ nwomasua soronko ne nhyehyɛe no botum efri ɔhaw a ofri ne nhyehyɛe mu.Sukuu ahorow dze abrofo mboframba a wɔwɔ mfinfin mu ngyinado(white middle-class) dze yɛ nhwɛdo a wɔdze hwehwɛ esuafo hɔn suban na hɔn mpontu, na onnfa mboa biara mma esuafo Ebibifo osiandɛ wohu hɔn dɛ hɔn enyiwa do yɛ hyew, na ɔma wotsea hɔn beberee na wɔdze hyɛ nwomasua soronko ne nhyehyɛe mu.[10]Dza ɔka ho nye dɛ, sɛ wɔdze mboframba a wɔwɔ mfinfin mu ngyinado(white middle-class) yɛ nhwɛdo a nyimpakuw bi wɔ wɔ nkurow mu ahorow beberee wɔ United States na wɔyɛ dza hɔn enyiwa da do dze boa hɔn mboframba hɔn mpontu wɔ dza obotum aba mu wɔ akwanya a ɔfa nhyehyɛe tsitsir bi na dza ɔyɛ akwansidze wɔ aber a ɔwɔ dɛ wɔyɛ nhwehwɛmu wɔ nhyehyɛe a no mu yɛ dzen na wogye to mu na bea a wobɛtsena no ho nhyehyɛe dze kɔ ecological contingencies.[6]Wɔ aber a dɛm esuafo yi nya dzin dɛ wɔyɛ nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko no mu esuafo no, wotum yi hɔn fri nhyehyɛe a wɔdze tsea esuafo no.[12] Mpɛn pii no Ebibifo esuafo kɔ sukuu a wonnfa sika nhyɛ mu yie, wɔkɔ sukuu a onnyi akadze papa na wɔwɔ akyerɛkyerɛfo a hɔn ntsetsee wɔ famu; sɛ wɔkɔ abrofo sukuu a Abrofo ahyɛ mu ma a,mpɛm pii no wɔkyɛ hɔn mu na wɔdze hɔn hyɛ remedial courses mu, na ɔdze nsusuando brɛ hɔn osiandɛ dɛm dwumadzi no ne ho nhyɛhyɛe wɔ famu na wonnkyerɛ hɔn adze yie.[10]

Wɔ dwendwen ho dɛ dɛm ebibifo esuafo yi a hɔn ekyir wonnyi bi no wobotum enya nwomasua soronko no mu nhyehyɛe wɔ ɔfa a ɔdze nkyekyɛmu dzi dwuma,na ɔdze akwansidze ba dɛm nwomasua ne mpontu.[1] Esuafo a wɔwɔ dɛm mbea a hɔn eguadzi mu nsɛm wɔ famu no mpɛn pii wɔkɔ sukuu a wonnfa sika nnhyɛ mu, akyerɛkyerɛfo hɔn ntsetsee, na dza esuafo no hɔn enyiwa da do wɔ famu koraa.[1]

Ibom ma ɔkyerɛ dɛ nyimpa bi yɛ Bibinyi ana Bronyi(race) na ohia ho nsɛm da nhyehyɛe a wɔdze saw ɔhaw ano n'akoma do, akwan a wɔdze siesie nhyehyɛe a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mmba nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu no botum enya nsusuando beberee wɔ nsisii nhyehyɛe ma nyimpakuw bi na dza ɔdɔɔso ma wɔdze gyina hɔ ma esuafo Ebibifo wɔ nwomasua soronko mu.[10]

Policies that contribute

Nwomasua mu nhyehyɛe tsitsir na mbrɛ ahorow a ɔdze nkyekyɛmu ba Abrofo na Ebibifo hɔn mu no mpɛn pii no wɔhyɛ sukuu hɔn nhyehyɛe a wɔdze tsentsen hɔn esuafo no mu na dwumadzi ahorow wɔ nwomasua soronko mu.[12] Mfatoho, Dwumadzi nhyehyɛe a onngye biribiara nnto mu, na ɔdze nhyehyɛe to akwan mu a otum kyerɛ asotwe ahorow a ɔwɔ dɛ wɔdze ma dwumadzi bɔne ahorow bi, dwumadzi ahorow a ɔdze nsisii ma nyimpakuw bi no dze ɔhaw brɛ esuafo Ebibifo.[12][15]Dɛm nhyehyɛe yi tum ma woyi esuafo fri sukuu mu nkitahodzi bi kosi aber bi (suspensions) na wotum yi esuafo edzi fri sukuu no mu nhyehyɛe koraa,[12] dɛm nhyehyɛe yi da no ho edzi wɔ nwomasua soronko ne nhyehyɛe mu.[14] Akwan a wɔfa do dze dɛm nwomasua no mu nhyehyɛe dzi dwuma no na mbrɛ ahorow a mpɛn pii no wɔdze akwan a Abrofo sisi Ebibifo dzi dwuma, ma nsisi nsɛm a nyimpakuw bi fa mu no dze nsusuando bɔne brɛ Ebibifo esuafo.[12]

Dwumadzi no mu nhyehyɛe  wɔ nkyekyɛmu ma nsisi nsɛm a nyimpakuw bi fa mu a wɔdze ahyɛ nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu dɛ mpɛn pii no ma biribi kɔdo a wɔ dwen ho dɛ ɔyɛ  "neutral" a ɔkyerɛ dɛ dwumadzi nhyehyɛe a onngyina mu mma afa biara na ɔma dza ofri mu ba no nya ne ngyinado wɔ dɛ nyimpakuw bi yɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofi.[12]Iyi kyerɛ dɛ nkyekyɛmu a ɔda Abrofo anaa Ebibifo hɔn mu no a ɔnye nhyehyɛe a ɔfa nsisi nsɛm a nyimpakuw bi fa mu wɔ nwomasua soronko no mu no wɔdze ahyɛ ndzɛmba a w'ahyehye no mu na dwumadzi ne ho nhyehyɛe no mu wɔ nwomasua ne nhyehyɛe mu na onnya dza ne iyiano fri ankoranko hɔn akwan a wɔdze dzi asɛm ma afa kyen afa fofor bi anaa dwumadzi ne mu ndzeyɛe bi.[12]

Factors that influence special identification

Dza ɔkyerɛ dɛ nyimpa bi yɛ banyin anaa basia(Gender),Dza ɔkyerɛ dɛ nyimpa bi yɛ Bronyi anaa Bibinyi (race), sikasɛm na eguadzi mu nhyehyɛe(socioeconomic status), na mpɛn ahorow a wɔdze yi hɔn fri dwumadzi mu kosi mber bi(suspensions) yɛ dza ɔdze akwansidze pii ba akwan a wɔdze nkorɔfo hyɛ dwumadzi bi mu.[10][14] Ne tsitsir, Esuafo mbanyinfo a hɔn ebusua nnyi bi wɔ ɔhaw kɛse wɔ ehiadze nhyehyɛe ne nkyekyɛmu ahorow mu.[14] Dza ɔka ho nye, mpɛn dodow a osuanyi bi woyi no fri sukuu nkitahodzi mu tum nya nsusuando bɔne wɔ akwan a omma onya akwanya wɔ nwomasua nhyehyɛe soronko bi mu.[14]

Role of historical inequality

Wɔ Abakɔsɛm mu no pɛpɛryɛ a onnyi hɔ wɔ America no dzi akotsen wɔ pɛpɛryɛ a onnyi nwomasua nhyehyɛe mu dɛm aber yi.[13] Abakɔsɛm a ɔkasafa tsetse nhyehyɛe a ɔkyerɛ akwan a Abrofo no nye Ebibifo no faa do na akwan a Abrofo no hyɛɛ Ebibifo no do no kɔ do dɛm aber yi na wɔdze nkyekyɛmu dzi dwuma wɔ hɔn mu na wɔ sukuu ahorow mu, na iyi ma wɔbɔ bra a ɔdze nkyekyɛmu ba Abrofo no na Ebibifo no hɔn mu,ibi nye dza ogyina hɔ ma nkyekyɛmu tsitsir a onnfa pɛpɛryɛ mbrɛ nyimpakuw bi wɔ dɛ wɔyɛ Abrofo anaa Ebibifo( significant disproportionality) wɔ nwomasua soronko (special education).[13] Abakɔsɛm a ɔkyerɛ nkyekyɛmu a ɔwɔ Abrofo na Ebibifo hɔn mu no dze nhyehyɛe a ɔma ekuw a wɔhyɛ hɔn do no nye ekuw a wɔhyɛ nkorɔfo do no hɔn dwumadzi bɔ ebira.[5]Dɛm nsɛm yi fa dza ɔyɛ tsetse nhyehyɛe no fa akwan a Abrofo no nye Ebibifo no tsenae na hɔn eguadzi mu nkyekyɛmu ma United States ma akwan a dɛm tsetse nhyehyɛe no botum atwe hɔn adwen akosi"adze kor no nso do."[6] Gyedzi a ɔwɔ dza wopɛ na dza wonnpɛ wɔ akwan a ɔdeda sukuu district mu no wɔdze hɔn abrabɔ mu nhyehyɛe(socially) na amanbrɛ mu nhyehyɛe (culturally) na wɔdze siesie no wɔ akwan ɔdze ɔhaw brɛ esuafo Ebibifo wɔ hɔn sukuu district mu.[13]Pɛpɛryɛ a onnyi hɔ ma nyimpakuw bi wɔ tsetse nsɛm mu no ma wotum dze dzi dwuma wɔ akyerɛkyerɛfo hɔn akwan mu, ebusua ahorow mu, na nkurow ahorow hɔn dwumadzi wɔ akwan a otum yi esuafo Ebibifo na hɔn ebusuafo fri hɔn adwenfa mu nhyehyɛe wɔ hɔn nwomasua mu.

Stigmatization and disproportionality

Wɔ aber a nhyehyɛdze a ɔhwɛ nwomasua soronko ɔwɔ dɛ ɔdze mboa nhyehyɛe to akwan mu ma esuafo a wɔwɔ ehiadze bi anaa yareba bi no, dzaa ogyina atwetwesi a wɔ fa mu (stigmatization) na nsisii nsɛm a wɔnye hɔn fa mu (disproportionality) wɔ nwomasua soronko mu no (special education) ma ɔda nsusuando bɔne a ofri akwan a wɔdze dzin ahorow to nkorɔfo bi do anaa wo tsiw hɔnho fri nyimpa bi ho,ne tsitsir kɔ ma esuafo a wɔyɛ Ebibifo[14] Akwan a wɔdze dzin to nyimpakuw bi hɔn do na wɔdze adwenpɔw bi (assigning intellectual), dza wotum hu(physical), anaa atsenka mu ehiadze (emotional disabilities) mma wonnhwɛ esuafo wo akwan bi do nkotsee wɔ hɔn tsebea mu na ibom ɔwɔ nsusuando kɛse bi ma hɔn ebusuafo, ne tsitsir wɔ nkurow bi hɔn amanbrɛ nhyehyɛe mu.[9][6]

Akwan a wɔ fa do dze to hɔn dzin, onye akwan a wɔtsew hɔnho fri hɔn mu no dze kɔ sukuu adan ahorow mu no, ma akwan a wɔdze bɛhwɛ dɛm esuafo yi asei koraa, a ɔkyerɛ akwan a wɔdze tsew hɔnho fri hɔn mu no .[12] Ma ɔbor akwan a tsebea no hyehyɛ no, dɛm akwan a wɔdze tsew hɔnho fri hɔn mu no tum dze ɔhaw brɛ hɔn w'aber a w'ewie hɔn sukuu na ɔtsew akwanya a Ebibifo esuafo botum enya.[14]

Intersectionality and disability

Esuafo a wɔwɔ ehiadze bi anaa yareba bi no wonye hɔn hyɛ  gyinabea bi wɔ hɔn mantam a ɔhyɛ mfinfim dɛ wɔyɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofo(race),ebusuakuw (ethnicity),gyinabea a wɔwɔ mu (class), kasa a wɔka(language), na sɛ wɔyɛ mbanyinfo anaa mbasiafo(sexuality).[13]W'aber a nkorɔfo beberee dze hyɛ esuafo dɛ wɔwɔ ehiadze bi anaa yareba bi frii a ngyinae a ɔkyerɛ dɛ adze papa beberee nnkɔ tum efri mu aba, akwan a wɔdze hwɛ nkorɔfo a wɔwɔ ehiadze a ɔfa dɛ wɔyɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofo(intersectionality of disability with race), bea a wofri(ethnic),gyinabea a wɔwɔ mu(class), kasa a wɔ ka(language), na sɛ wɔyɛ mbanyinfo anaa mbasiafo(sexuality) botum afa akwan ahorow a wɔdze sei nkorɔfo wɔ dɛ wɔyɛ Ebibifo anaa Abrofo(race) na ehiadze a wɔwɔ.[13]Dza ɔka ho nye dɛ, akwan a wɔdze hwɛ nkorɔfo a wɔwɔ ehiadze a wɔfri mbea ahorow tum nya nsusuando wɔ esuafo hɔn do wɔ hɔn nwomasua no mu nsɛm ho na dza obɛfri mu aba ho.[13] Dza adzesuabea ahorow rehwehwɛ efri hɔn ho na ɔwɔ ngyinae a onnkyerɛ akwan a Ebibifo anaa Abrofo, mbanyinfo anaa mbasiafo, na dza okekaho ka bɔmu dze siesie dza nkorɔfo famu no (non-intersectional contexts) tum tsew akwanya a no ho hia yie ama dɛm esuafo yi.