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Reparations for Slavery

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reparations for slavery
Subclass ofreparations Sesa mu
Facet ofslavery Sesa mu
Has causehistorical debt Sesa mu

Nkowaasom ho mpatadze no dze akatua ahorow ho nhyehyɛɛ a United Nations yɛe a ɔfa nkorɔfo a United States na nkaafo a wɔka hɔn ho nam nkowaasom do tsiatsiaa nkowaa na hɔn asefo hɔn fahodzi na akwannya do no dzi dwuma. Yɛwɔ dza ɔnam mbra kwan do na yɛwɔ dza ɔfa daadaa pɛrpɛryɛ ho. Akatua no tum fa akwan ahorow pii do ba, a bi nye dɛ wɔhyɛ da ara si mu kɔ kedzi ho dwuma na dza ɔfa sika do ba a wɔdze ma nkowaa hɔn asefo no, fɔ a wɔgye to mu dɛ wodzi anaa akyɛpa a wɔdze ma nkorɔfo anaa amanaman a nkowaasom haaw hɔn no, anaa so mpo wɔdze hɔn a wɔkɔr nkowaasom mu hɔn edzin bɔtoto ndzɛmba ma ayɛ nkaadum kɛse ama nkorɔfo. "Nkorɔfo a nkowaasom ho nsunsuando bɔn baa hɔn do" botum egyina hɔ ama nkowaasom a etwa mu no anaa dza ogu do rokɔ do wɔ mfeha a ɔtɔ do eduonu biako no.

United Nations Nhyehyɛɛ

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Dɛ mbrɛ United Nations nhyehyɛɛ kyerɛ no, " mpatadze akatua ahorow" kyerɛ nhyehyɛɛ a aban nam ndzɛmba ahorow na egyinahyɛdze a ɔyɛ hɔn mboa ahorow do dze egu akwan mu a ɔhwɛ siesie ndzɛmba a ɔko tsia nkorɔfo anaa hɔn ebusua hɔn fahodzi a hɔn mborɔn na kurow mu nyina ka ho. UN no kyerɛ dɛ dɛm ndzɛmba etsitsir yi nyina bɛkeka abɔ mu ana wɔafrɛ biribi dɛ akatua: nsumii,mpata,adwen mu nsiesie na akomatɔyamu.[1]

Ahorow

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Akatua ahorow no nam akwan beberee do ba, a ndzɛmba a wɔnam do yɛ mu bi nye dza wɔfrɛ no affirmative action(a ɔyɛ dza wɔyɛ dze siw dza otsia nkorɔfo hɔn fahodzi do no ano); ankorankor sikatua; sika a wotu dze pata nkorɔfo; sika a wɔdze ma binom ma wɔdze kosua adze na nwomasua ho nhyehyɛɛ ahorow;[2] dza wɔdze gu akwan dɛ obesiw atɛnkyea ano; anaa nsaase a wɔdze yɛ mpatadze a ɔfa fahodzi ne gye ho;[3][4] dɛ woriyiyi ndzɛmba a woesisi no dɛ nkaadum na wɔsan rema akwan edzin fofor a ɔhyɛɛ hɔna wɔdze binom kɔr nkowaasom mu na hɔn a wokoe tsiaa nkowaasom;[5] anaa wɔdze obi a ɔkɔr nkowaasom mu anaa obi a ɔpeer dɛ biribi dɛm bɛba ewiei ne dzin bɔto dan bi do.[5]

Hɔn A Wodzii Mu Ntsin

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Netherlands

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Mumu mu wɔ afe 2022 mu no, Netherlands ɔman no soafo panyin a ɔdze Mark Rutte, gyinaa hɔn aban n’anan mu paa kyɛw wɔ dza wɔyɛɛ wɔ nkowaasom mu wɔ dwumadzi bi a ɔkɔr do wɔ National Archives ase wɔ Hague, a nna ndwumakuw ahorow a wɔka bi ma afofor hɔn ananmusifo ahorow wɔ hɔ. Ɔhyɛɛ bɔ dɛ wɔdze Euros ɔpepe aha ebien dɛ “wɔdze robɔ iyi ho dawur ma nkorɔfo ehu, nkorɔfo aba ebosuo mu na wɔaahwɛ kwan a wɔbɛfa do aka nkowaasom ho nsunsuando a ɔwɔ hɔ sesei”, na wɔnye Carribean aman,Suriname na aman afofor reyɛ nhyehyɛɛ a wɔdze bɛkaa abakɔsɛm a ɔfa nkowaasom ho wɔ Ayɛwoho 1,2023.[6][7]

United Kingdom

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Afe 2010 mu no, nkorɔfo kae kɔr ekyir yie dɛ mpata ahorow bɛba do, na no ho mfatoho no bi nye aman nyina mu mpata sikatua a ɔkasa fa nkowaa hɔn fahodzi a wotsiatsiaa do na akyɛpa ahorow a ɔbae a wɔammfa biribiara yehu no enyikan do biara annkɔ annkɛma.[8][9] Mbom, Obiradzi bosoom mu wɔ afe 2023 mu no, Brattle Kuw no dze amandzɛɛ bɔtoo gua a nna ɔfa mpata a ɔkɔr do wɔ University of the West Indies ber a odzi kan, a wɔdze sika dollars ɔpepem ɔpepem ɔha maa hɔn a nkowaasom koe tsiaa hɔn ber a ɔkɔr do na n’ekyir nyina no.

Slave owners' compensation (1837)

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Hwɛ iyi so: Slave Compensation Act 1837

Akowaa Mpatadze Mbra wɔ afe 1837 mu no yɛ Mbra a United Kingdom hɔn mbrahyɛbagua gyee too mu wɔ Mumu 23,1837 mu, dɛ ɔmfa mpata a ɔdze fahodzi ba mbra. Wotuaa nkowaa ewuranom bɛyɛ euro ɔpepe eduonu dɛ wɔnhwɛ ho mpɔn nkowaa bɔbor apem eduanan a nna wɔwowɔ Carribean aman mu, Mauritius na Cape of Good Hope mu.[10][11] Nna iyi gyina hɔ ma Britainfo hɔn Fotow a wɔdze si hɔ bɔ hɔnho bra  afe biara no mu ɔha nkyekyɛmu  eduanan a sɛ nkyɛ yɛdze rototo ndɛ dze ho a, ɔbɛyɛ bɛyɛ euro ɔpepem duesia na ekyir pɔw enum. No mu bi a wotuae no, wɔdaan no ɔha nkyɛmu ebiasa na ekyir pɔw  enum a aban tua dabaa a ɔbɛyɛɛ nhyehyɛɛ a ɔbɛkaa hɔ.[12] Some of the payments were converted into 3.5% government annuities, which caused a drawn-out process.[13]


Abuja Paamuka na ARM (1993)

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Wɔtseew Africa Reparations Movement a  wɔsan frɛ hɔn ARM(a ɔwɔ UK)wɔ afe 1993 mu ber a Abuja Paamuka no daa Ebibirmu Fahodzi Nhyiamu a ogyina Mpatadze Akatua do a odzi kan a ɔkɔr do wɔ Abuja, a ɔwɔ Alataman mu wɔ afe kor noara mu. Alata aban no nye Organisation of African Unity(OAU) no hyehyɛɛ nhyiamu a ɔtse dɛm no.[14]

Afe 1993 n’ahyɛse mu ara no, mbrahyɛbaguanyi a ɔwɔ Britainman mu no kekyimaa ɔman a wɔreper mpata akatua  wɔ nkowaasom ntsi no mu.[15] Esusow Aketseaba 10, 1993 mu no na ɔdze too hɔn mbrahyɛbagua a ɔdze House of Commons no enyim dɛ otwar dɛ wɔgye paamuka a ɔtse dɛm no to mu na wohu dɛ paamuka no “hwehɛ dɛ wiadze mfɛndzanan nyina hu kaw kɛse a wɔdze Ebibifo a wonnyae nntuae, na aman a wɔdze hɔn kɔr nkowaasom mu na hɔn a wodzii hɔn aman do na wɔnsan ndwen mpatadze akatua no ho bio nkotua mma Ebibir aman na Ebibifo a wɔwɔ aman a womfi do mu;na wonhu nsunsuando bɔn a aba hɔn sikasɛm ntotoe na ankorankor do osian ntwuwdzi a wɔdze tsiaa Ebibir amamba na Ebibifo a wɔwɔ aman afofor do na nyiyimu a ogyina nyimpa n’ahosu do a akɔ akɛfa aba ; na wɔnhwɛ mboa OAU ber a wɔreper ahwehwɛ dza ɔdze mpatadze akatua yi bɛba no”. Nyia a ɔbɔɔ nasɛm yi ho kaw nye Bernie Grant, Tony Benn, Tony Banks,John Austin-Walker, Harry Barnes, na Gerry Bermingham. Labour  Party amanyɛkuw no mu mbrahyɛbaguafo eduanan esia foaa asɛm yi do, a nna hɔn a hɔn aban nntse do no hɔn panyin, Jeremy Corbyn ka ho bi.[16]

Abuja Paamuka no hwehwɛɛ dɛ ɔman biara benya no kuw a ɔhwɛ mpata akatua do wɔ Ebibir aman nyina mu na hɔn a wonnyi hɔn aman a wofi do mu no nyina mu. Bernie Grant dzii enyim ma wɔtseew ARM a ɔwɔ UK wɔ Mumu bosoom no mu wɔ afe 1993 mu a[17] nna ɔsan nye panyin, a nna nkorɔfo bi tse dɛ: hɔn kyerɛkyerɛwfo Sam Walker; ɔfotosamfo Linda Bellos na mpanyimfo nkaa tse dɛ Patrick Wilmott, Stephen A. Small ( Britainnyi a ɔakwadar nwomusua a ɔfa nkowaasom yie ),[18][19]) na Hugh Oxley nyina ka no ho.[17]

ARM hwɛe dɛ:[20]

  • wɔbɛfa mbra kwan biara do enya mpatadze akatua osian nkowaasom na Ebibir mu amanfo a aman afofor bobuu hɔn na hɔn a woekopue aman fofor do no
  • wɔbɛfa mbra kwan biara do ma nsa aka Ebibifo hɔn ndzɛmba etsitsir efi bea wogu biara
  • wɔbɔhwehwɛ akyɛpa efi aborɔfo aban no hɔ wɔ Ebibifo a wɔdze hɔn kɔr nkowaasom mu na wobedzii hɔn do no
  • wɔbɔbɔ dza Ebibifo ayɛ aboa wiadze abakɔsɛm na enyibuei ho dawur akyerɛ
  • wɔbɔbɔ mbrɛ Ebibifo hɔn abakɔsɛm tse ankasa ho dawur na Ebibifo a eenya enyidzi na obu a wikitsae no bio
  • wɔbɛkyerɛkyerɛ na wɔama Ebibifo a wɔyɛ mbaabun a wɔwɔ Ebibir aman mu na aman afofor  do no ehu Ebibifo amambra ahorow,kasahorow na hɔn hɔn enyibuei

Ekyir a Bernie Grant wuu wɔ afe 2000 mu no, ARM UK annyɛ edwuma bio.[21]

Class action (2004)

Afe 2004 mu no no mbranyimnyi Ed Fagan a noho yɛ ahomtsew yie a odzi mpatadze akatua ekyir yie no kɛsamaan Lloyd’s of London a wɔma nsiekyirbaa wɔ hɔn nsa aɔwɔ nkowaasom a ɔkɔr do no mu dɛ wɔdze nsiekyirbaa memaa nsuhɛn ahorow a ɔfaa nkowaa no.[22][23][24] Dɛm asɛm yi annkɔ ennkesi hwee.[25]

Akyɛpa

Ɔberɛfɛw mu wɔ afe 2006 mu no, Britainman no no soafo panyin Tony Blair dze asɛm a ɔda awerɛhow kɛse edzi bɛkasae faa Britainman no hɔn dwumadzi wɔ nkowaasom mu na ɔkaa nna ɔyɛ “enyiwu kɛsekɛse”[9] Asɛm no bɔtɔɔ gua no, hɔn a wopia dɛ mpatadze akatua bɔkɔ do wɔ Britainman no mu no kasaa pii a, nna Esther Stanford rekyerɛ dɛ nkyɛ otwar dɛ ɔdze “akyɛpa papa”, a nkyɛ ɔno ekyir mpo no wɔdze “mpatadze ho nhyehyɛɛ bogu a akwan mu a sikatua ka ho”. Blair sanee dze akyɛpa bio bae wɔ afe 2007 mu ber a okehyiaa Ghana mampanyin John Kufour  no.[26]

Dzifuu bosoom mu wɔ afe 2007 mu no, ɔdzekurow a ɔwɔ London a ɔdze Ken Livingstone serɛe wɔ nyimpadɔm nyina enyim ber a nna woridzi 1807 Nkowaasom Ho Mbra no ne mfrenhyia a otsia aha ebien no wɔ hɔn dwuma  a wodzii wɔ nkowaasom mu no ho ntsi. Ne kasaa mu no, Livingstone dze too Britain Aban no enyim dɛ ɔnyɛ mbra a ɔbɛma wɔdze da bi esi hɔ afe biara dze akaa nkowaasom a ɔkɔr do no.[27]

Heirs of Slavery

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

In February 2023, former BBC journalist Laura Trevelyan, whose family had owned plantations in Grenada, travelled to Grenada to make an apology for harm caused and to give reparations. Her family has also apologised to the island nation for harm caused by slavery, and the group has called on the British Prime Minister and King Charles to make a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom.[28]

In April 2023, she co-founded Heirs of Slavery, a group of descendants of people who had profited from British transatlantic slavery and want to make amends. Trevelyan's family has donated money towards education schemes in Grenada via CARICOM, and hopes that Heirs of Slavery will bring similar actions on a greater scale. As of May 2023, the other members of the group are David Lascelles, 8th Earl of Harewood; Charles Gladstone, who is descended from prime minister William Gladstone; journalist Alex Renton;[28] Richard Atkinson; John Dower (of the Trevelyan family); Rosemary Harrison; and Robin Wedderburn.[29]

United States

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]
Main article: Reparations for slavery in the United States
See also: National African American Reparations Commission

Slavery ended in the United States in 1865 with the end of the American Civil War and the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which declared that "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction".[30] At that time, an estimated four million African Americans were set free.[31] There are instances of reparations for slavery, relating to the Atlantic slave trade, dating back to at least 1783 in North America,[2] with a growing list of modern-day examples of reparations for slavery in the United States in 2020 as the call for reparations in the US has been bolstered by protests around police brutality and other cases of systemic racism in the US.[32] The call for reparations for racism has also been made alongside calls for reparations for slavery.[33][3]

U.S. reparations movement leaders have developed the following racial repair framework for categorizing the components of reparations for slavery: 1. Reckoning: Understanding or grappling with the what, who, how, and why of actions that have contributed to harm. 2. Acknowledgment: Public admission that harm has been done 3. Accountability: Ownership and commitment to take action, cease and repair harm. 4. Redress: Acts of restitution, financial compensation, and rehabilitation, proactive steps taken to embed racial justice into systems and “heal the wound”

Support for reparations

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Within the political sphere, a bill demanding slavery reparations has been proposed at the national level, the "Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act", which former Rep. John Conyers Jr. (D-MI) reintroduced to the United States Congress every year from 1989 until his resignation in 2017.[34] As its name suggests, the bill recommended the creation of a commission to study the "impact of slavery on the social, political and economic life of our nation";[35] however, there are cities and institutions that have initiated reparations in the US (see § Legislation and other actions for a list).

In 1999, African-American lawyer and activist Randall Robinson, founder of the TransAfrica advocacy organization, wrote that America's history of race riots, lynching, and institutional discrimination have "resulted in $1.4 trillion in losses for African Americans".[36] Economist Robert Browne stated that, the ultimate goal of reparations should be to "restore the black community to the economic position it would have if it had not been subjected to slavery and discrimination".[37] He estimates a fair reparation value anywhere between $1.4 to $4.7 trillion, or roughly $142,000 (Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character "[".) for every black American living today.[37] Other estimates range from $5.7 to $14.2[38] and $17.1 trillion.[39]

In 2014, American journalist Ta-Nehisi Coates published an article titled "The Case for Reparations", which discussed the continued effects of slavery and Jim Crow laws and made renewed demands for reparations. Coates refers to Rep. John Conyers Jr.'s H.R.40 Bill, pointing out that Congress's failure to pass this bill expresses a lack of willingness to right their past wrongs.[40]

In September 2016, the United Nations' Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent encouraged Congress to pass H.R.40 to study reparations proposals. Still, the Working Group did not directly endorse any specific reparations proposal. The report noted that there exists a legacy of racial inequality in the United States, and explained that "Despite substantial changes since the end of the enforcement of Jim Crow and the fight for civil rights, ideology ensuring the domination of one group over another, continues to negatively impact the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of African Americans today." The report notes that, a "dangerous ideology of systemic racism inhibits social cohesion among the US population".[41]

The topic of reparations gained renewed attention in 2020[42] as the Black Lives Matter movement named reparations as one of their policy goals in the United States.

In 2020, rapper T.I. supported reparations that would give every African American Nhwɛdo:US$ million and asserted that slavery caused mass incarcerations, poverty, and other ills.[43]

Caribbean

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

From the perspective of international law, it is questionable whether slavery, genocide, and other crimes against humanity had been outlawed at the time they were committed in the Caribbean; for example, "Although the factual appearance of genocide can be traced back at least to ancient times, its prohibition by international law appears to be a phenomenon of the early 20th century". Additionally, according to internationally established customs, a successor government is responsible for providing reparative justice.

Under the international principle of intertemporal law, today's prohibitions cannot be applied retroactively. There is a legal argument suggesting that, exceptions to intertemporal law apply in cases of crimes against humanity, as European states and their representatives could not expect slavery to be legal in the future (referred to as teleological reduction of the principle). However, it is a complex area of law.[44]

CARICOM Reparations Commission

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]
See also: Slave Compensation Act 1837

The Caribbean Community (CARICOM), established in 1973, is an intergovernmental organisation that is a political and economic union of 15 member states throughout the Caribbean.[45] Until 1995, it comprised only the English-speaking parts of the Caribbean, until the addition of Suriname (Dutch) in 1995; Haiti and other non-Anglophone nations have since joined.[46][47]

In 2013, in the first of a series of lectures in Georgetown, Guyana, to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the 1763 Berbice Slave Revolt, Principal of the Cave Hill Campus of the University of the West Indies, Sir Hilary Beckles urged the CARICOM countries to emulate the position adopted by the Jews who were persecuted during the Second World War and have since organized a Jewish reparations fund.[48][49] Following Beckles' advice, the CARICOM Reparations Commission[50] was created in September 2013.

Nkowaasom Ho Adzedzifo

Kwakwa bosoom mu wɔ afe 2023 mu no, Laura Trevelyan a nna ɔyɛ BBC nsɛnkyerɛwnyi no, nna n’ebusua wɔ mfuw wɔ Grenada ntsi, kɔr Grenada kɛpaa kyɛw wɔ ɔhaw a wɔama nkorɔfo akɔ mu na okotuaa mpatadze so ma hɔn. N’ebusua so apa supruw do man yi kyɛw wɔ ɔhaw a wɔnam nkowaasom do ama aba hɔn do no ho, na kuw yi dze ato Britain soafo panyin na King Charles nyina hɔn enyim dɛ wɔngye enyim ara ngyina United Kingdom anan mu mpa kyɛw.[28]

Ebɔbira bosoom no mu wɔ afe 2023 mu no, ɔkaa hɔn a wɔtseew kuw a ɔdze Heirs of Slavery no a nna nkorɔfo a wɔwɔ mu no yɛ hɔn a wonyaa mfaso fi nkowaasom a Britainfo yɛe no mu a wɔpɛ dɛ wɔhwɛ ma ho mpatadze a ɔsɛ. Trevelyan n’ebusua nam CARICOM do dze sika aboa Grenadafo hɔn nwomasua nhyehyɛɛ ahorow, na wɔhwɛ kwan dɛ Heirs of Slavery bɔkɔ do ayɛ ndzɛmba a ɔtsetse dɛm no bi ma akyɛn dza wodzii kan yɛe no koraa. Esusow Aketseaba mu wɔ afe 2023 mu no, nna kuwmba a wɔda ho wɔ mu nye David Lascelles, Harewood onyinyamfo a otsia awɔtwe; a ɔdze Charles Gladstone a ɔyɛ soafo panyin William Gladstone n’asefo no mu kor; nsɛnkyerɛwnyi Aleɔ Renton; Richard Atkinson; John Dower ( a ofi Trevelyan ebusua mu);Rosemary Harrison; na Robin Wedderburn.[28] Richard Atkinson; John Dower (of the Trevelyan family); Rosemary Harrison; and Robin Wedderburn.[51]

United States

Atekel no ankasa: Reparations for slavery in the United States

Hwɛ iyi so: National African American Reparations Commission

Nkowaasom no do twae wɔ United States wɔ afe 1865 mu ber a Amereka Mu Ɔko no baa ewiei no mu na wɔgyee United States Mbrabaatan Mu Nsakyer A Otsia Duebiasa no too mu, a ɔdze too gua dɛ “Onnyi dɛ nkowaasom ana ɔsom a ommfi obi ne pɛ mu kɔ do wɔ United States anaa bea biara a ɔhyɛ hɔn ase mu, gyedɛ bɔn ho asotwe nko. Dɛm ber no, Amɛrekafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo bɛyɛ ɔpepe anan na wogyaa hɔn ma wonyaa hɔn fahodzi.[52] Nkowaasom ho mpatadze akatua pii na akɔ do, a ɔnye Translatic dze no wɔ twaka, a osii wɔ afe 1783 wɔ Amɛreka n’Etsifi do, a ɔkɔr do ara besi sesei dze a nkowaasom ho mpatadze akatua ho mfatoho dodowara kɔ do wɔ United States a bi sii wɔ afe 2020 mu ber a nkorɔfo soɛree dɛ biribi a ɔtse dɛm bɔkɔ do wɔ US mu ma nkorɔfo soɛree tseew etua ahorow wɔ ayaayawdze a apolisifo yɛ na nsisi a ogyina nyimpa ahosu do a ɔkɔ do wɔ US no.[53] Mpatadze akatua a wɔdze ma osian nsisi a ogyina obi n’ahosu do so ka mpatadze akatua a nna nkorɔfo rohwehwɛ dɛ ɔbɔkɔ do no ho.

US mpatadze akatua ekuw ahorow mu mpanyimfo

U.S. reparations movement leaders have developed the following racial repair framework for categorizing the components of reparations for slavery: 1. Reckoning: Understanding or grappling with the what, who, how, and why of actions that have contributed to harm. 2. Acknowledgment: Public admission that harm has been done 3. Accountability: Ownership and commitment to take action, cease and repair harm. 4. Redress: Acts of restitution, financial compensation, and rehabilitation, proactive steps taken to embed racial justice into systems and “heal the wound”

Mpatadze Akatua Ho Mboa

Amanyɛsɛm mu no, wɔdze mbra aba ɔfa mpatadze akatua ho wɔ ɔman mu nyina mu, a ɔno nye “Commission to Study and Develop Repartion Proposals for African-Americans Acts”, a hɔn ananmusinyi John Conyers Jr.(D-MI) hyɛɛ ase wɔ afe 1989 na ɔsanee dze kɔr hɔn mbrahyɛbagua mu afe biara dze kesii afe 2017 mu a ogyae no. Dɛ mbrɛ ne dzin no kyerɛ no,mbra no susuu dɛ wɔnyɛ kuw a no mu apamfo bɔhwehwɛ “ nsunsuando a nkowaasom dze ba hɛn man yi nkitahodzisɛm, amanyɛsɛm na sikasɛm ntotoe mu “ mu adze, mbom nna nkurow na ekuw ahorow ahyɛ ase dadaw dɛ woridzi mpatadze akatua no ho dwuma dada wɔ US mu. ( Hwɛ § Legislation and other actions mu na hu hɔn a hɔn edzin wɔ mu no.)

Afe 1999 mu no, Bibinyi mbranyimnyi bi a ofi Amɛreka na ɔsan dzi mu akotsen a ɔdze Randall Robinson, a ɔdze TransAfrica a wogyina nkorɔfo anan mu per ma hɔn no, Amɛreka n’abakɔsɛm wɔ basabasayɛ a ogyina nyimpa ahosu do, okum,na nsisi a hɔn nhyehyɛɛ ahorow maa ho kwan ntsi Ebibifo a wɔyɛ Amɛreka no hweer sika dollar ɔpepepem kor na ekyir pɔw anan. Sikasɛm ho nyimdzefo kyerɛɛ dɛ siantsir tsitsir ntsi a otwar dɛ mpatadze akatua kɔ do nye dɛ “ɔbɛma ebibifo nsa bɛka sikasɛm ho ntotoe a nkyɛ hɔn nsa bɛka sɛ nkowaasom na nsisi annkɔ hɔn do a”. Osusu dɛ mpatadze akatua a odzi mu yie no bodu bɛyɛ dollar ɔpepepem kor na ekyir pɔw anan dze kesi n’ekyir pɔw esuon do, anaa obibinyi biara a ofi Amɛreka sesei no benya dollar 142,000 ( a afe 2024 mu no ogyina hɔ ma dollar 188,000). Nkontaabu afofor kerɛ dɛ otwar dɛ ɔhyɛ ase fi dollar enum na ekyir pɔw esuon dze kesi dollar duanan na ekyir pɔw ebien na dollar ɔpepepem dueson na ekyir pɔw kor.

Afe 2014 mu no, Amɛreka nsɛnkyerɛwnyi  ɔdze Ta-Nehisi Coates  kyerɛwee wɔ no nwoma “ The Case for Reparations”  mu faa nkowaasom ho nsunsuando a akɔ do na Jim Crow mbra na ɔdze ebisadze  afofor ahorow kɔree a nna ɔfa mpatadze sikatua ho. Coates kyerɛ dɛ gye a mbrahyɛbagua no anngye ɔnanmusinyi John Conyer Jnr. Ne H.R.40 ne mbra annto mu ma ammbɛyɛ mbra no kyerɛ dɛ wonnyi ɔpɛ a wɔdze besiesie mfom a wɔayɛ ma etwa mu no.

Fankwa mu wɔ afe 2016 mu no, United Nations mu kuw a wɔdze Working Group of Experts Ebibifo Asefo hyɛɛ mbrahybagua no nkuran dɛ wɔngye H.R.40 no  nto  mu ma ɔmbɛyɛ mbra dɛ mbrɛ ɔbɛyɛ a obotum ahwɛ mpatadze akatua mu adze akɔ ekyir yie. Mbom no, Working Group of Experts kuw no no anngye enyim ara anngye mpatadze akatua ho ntotoe pɔtsee biara annto mu. Dza wɔdze bɔtoo gua no daa no edzi dɛ, nsisi a ogyina nyimpa ahosu do ho nkaadum da ho wɔ hɔ wɔ United States mu, na ɔkyerɛ mu dɛ “Nsesa kɛse ara a akɔ do wɔ Jim Crow mbra wɔgyee too mu nyina ekyir na fahodzi ne per nyina ekyir no, dɛ nyimpakuw bi bohu hɔnho dɛ wɔkyɛn binom no, kɔ do dze nsunsuando bɔn ba fahodzi ahorow a mbra ma ho kwan ma Ebibifo a wɔyɛ Amɛrekafo nya no do sesei. Ɔsanee dze bɔtoo gua dɛ, adwen bi dɛ otwar dɛ nsisi a ogyina nyimpa n’ahosu do kɔ do nyina mmfa nkabɔmu mmba US amamfo mu”.

Afe 2020 mu no, mpatadze akatua ho nsɛnsɛm sanee maa no mu do ber a Black Lives Matter kuw no dze mpatadze akatua kaa hɔn nhyehyɛɛ etsitsir no ho wɔ United States mu no.

Afe 2020 mu no, ɔdwontonyi T.I n’adwen bɔboae dɛ otwar dɛ mpatadze  US dollar ɔpepe kor kɔ ma Obibinyi a ɔyɛ Amɛrekanyi biara  na ɔkyerɛɛ dɛ nkowaasom dze ndaduafa,ohia na ndzɛmba a ɔnnsɛ bae.

Caribbean

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

[edit source] Yerigyina Wiadze Mfɛndzanan Mbra no do a, nna ɔnntɔ asomu  dɛ nkowaasom,nyimpa dodow ewudzi, na bɔn ahorow a otsia adasa nyina no, nna ɔkɔ do wɔ Caribbean aman mu dɛm ber no: Mfatoho, “ Ɔwɔ mu dɛ nsɛm a ahorow a osisii a ɔyɛ nyimpa dodow ewudzi no hyɛɛ ase tsetse ber do dze, naaso wiadze mfɛndzanan mbra a wɔdze besiiw ano no hyɛɛ ase mfɛ ɔha a otsia eduonu no mu hɔ”. Bio, sɛ yerigyina mbra a wiadze mfɛndzanan nyina ahyehyɛ a , aban fofor a obedzi aban dadaw bi n’adze na otwar dɛ ɔhwɛ ma mpatadze ho akatua a ɔdze pɛrpɛryɛ ba no kɔ do.

Wiadze mfɛndzanan nhyehyɛɛ kor a ɔno nye intertemporal law ase no, dza ndɛ onnyi dɛ osi no, yennkotum egyina dza esi abɛsen do ana aba do. Mbra mu anokɔnkɔn a ɔkɔ do kyerɛ dɛ mbra a intertemporal law no yi si nkyɛn no tum dzi dwuma wɔ ber a bɔn a otsia nyimpa kɔ do, dɛ mbrɛ  Europe amanaman na hɔn ananmusifo enyi nnda kwan dɛ nkowaasom bɛyɛ biribi a mbra bɛgye ato mu daakye bi no.( Iyi nye ber a wonngyina mbra do mbom wogyina siantsir do gyina dɛm nhyehyɛɛ yi do dzi dwuma)  Mbra ne fa a ɔtse dɛm no dze, no mu yɛ dzen ara yie.

CARICOM Mpatadze Akatua Beesuomfo

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Hwɛ iyi so: Slave Compensation Act 1837

Caribbean Community (CARICOM) no, a wɔtseew no wɔ afe 1973 mu no, yɛ aban ahorow ntamu kasahoronhyehyɛɛ a ɔyɛ amanyɛ na sikasɛm mu nkabɔmu a aman duenum a wɔyɛ Carribean aman no nyina ka ho. Ɔdze besi 1995 mu no, na Carribean mbea a wɔka Borɔfo kasa nkotsee na nna  wɔwɔ mu, dze kesii dɛ wɔdze Suriname(Dutch) kɛkaa ho wɔ afe 1995 mu; Ofi dɛm ber no, Haiti na aman afofor a wɔnnka Borɔfo kasa abɛka ho bi.

Afe 2013 mu no, ɔkasa ahorow a wɔmae wɔ afrenhyia a otsia 250 wɔ Georgetown, Guyana dze kaa 1763 Berbice Slave Revolt no a odzi kan no, Cave Hill Adzesuabea a ɔwɔ West Indies Esuapɔn mu no Panyin no, a ɔdze Hilary Beckles hyɛɛ CARICOM aman no dɛ mma wonnsua gyinabea a Jewfo a wɔtaa hɔn wɔ Wiadze Nyina Ɔko a otsia ebien no mu na ofii hɔ no na wɔayɛ Jewfo so hɔn Mpatadze akatua nhyehyɛɛ ama hɔn. Beckles n’afotuu ekyir no, wɔhyehyɛɛ CARICOM Beesuomfo a Wɔhwɛ Mpatadze Ahoroow do wɔ afe 2013 mu. Afe 2014 mu no, Caribbeana aman 15 daa “CARICOM  Nsɛmpɔw Du A Ɔma Atsɛntsenenee A Ogyina Mpatadze  Ahorow Do” edzi, a ɔkyerɛɛ mpatadze akatua ahorow a ofi Europe aman hɔ… wɔ ɔhaw a ɔtsena hɔ daa a Atlantic do Nkowaatɔn dze bae no ho. Dza nna ɔka ndzɛmba a wɔrohwehwɛ no bi ho nye akyɛpa a aman a wɔdze hɔn ho kɛhyɛɛ mu no nyina bɛfa kwan a ɔsɛ do dze ama( a ɔnye “nsɛm a ɔnnda nnuho edzi bɔ ebira”), Ebibifo a woefi hɔn aman mu akɛtsena aman afofor do nyina no, wɔbɛsan dze hɔn akɔ hɔn nkyir, nhyehyɛɛ ahorow  awɔdze bɔboa Ebibifo ma woeesua hɔn abakɔsɛm ho adze na woeetum akyɛ so, na nhyehyɛɛ ahorow a wɔdze bɛma nkowaa hɔn asefo ma woeehu akenkan na akyerɛw, nyimpadua n’apɔwudzen na adwen mu ahoɔdzen nyina eetum etu mpon. Caribbean aman no hɔn ananmusifo aka mpɛn pii dɛ, wɔpɛ dɛ wɔdze asɛm no kɔ Amanaman Ntamu Asɛndzibea a(ICJ). Eso, ɔdze besi Sanda bosoom no mu wɔ afe 2023 mu no, wɔnnyɛɛ biribiara mmfaa ho dɛ wɔdze Barbados Aban no n’asɛm no bɔkɔ amanaman ntamu asɛndzii ma woeebua .

Antigua na Barbuda

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Afe 2011 mu no, wɔ United Nations dwumadzi bi mu no, Antigua na Barbuda frɛɛ dɛ wɔmfa mpatadze akatua ahorow mma hɔn, na wɔkaa dɛ “mpaapaamu na basabasayɛ a wɔyɛ tsia Ebibifo no atsew ahoɔdzen/tum a wɔwɔ do dɛ wɔdze nya hɔn nkɔdo dɛ ɔman,nkurow na ankorankor nyina. Ndaansa yi ara wɔ afe 2016 mu no, Antigua na Barbuda hɔn Ɔnanmu sifo a ɔwɔ United States, a ɔno nye Owura Ronald Sanders, frɛɛ Harvard Esuapɔn “dɛ wɔnda hɔn nnuho na kaw a wɔdze Antigua na Barbudafo no nkyerɛ”. Sanders kyerɛ a, ber a  Isaac Royall Jr. risi Harvard Mbra Skuul no, nkowaa hɔn edwumadzen na ɔdze dɔɔw n’efuw a nna ɔwɔ Antigua no. Nna ɔno na nna ɔyɛ Mbra ho adzesua mu okunyin a odzii kan wɔ Harvard. Sanders susuu dɛ mpatadze akatua a wobotum dze ama Antigua na Barbudanfo nye dɛ afe biara wɔbɛma hɔn sika ma wɔdze ekosua adze.

Barbados

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

[edit source] Afe 2012 mu no, Barbados aban no tseew Mpatadze Akatua ho Kuw a nna wɔyɛ nyimpa duebien dɛ wɔbɔkɔ do ekitsa mpatadze akatua ahorow mu akɔ mpɔtamu, amantɔw mu, na amanaman  ntamu ma akɔ do. Dɛm ber no, nna Barbadosfo na wodzi enyim ma “ wɔfrɛ dɛ mpatadze akatua ahorow bɔkɔ ama aman a wobobuu hɔn ma nsisi kɔree tsiaa nkowaa na hɔn ebusua no”.

Wɔkaa dɛ Barbados “ridzi enyim”(ofi afe 2021 mu) wɔ frɛ a wɔdze rohwehwɛ dɛ nkowaasom ho mpatadze akatua ahorow no.

Ofi January mu wɔ afe 2023 mu no, ɔman no ne Mpatadze Akatua ho Kuw so a ɔyɛ CARICOM hɔn Mpatadze akatua Bagua no, rohwehwɛ mpatadze akatua efi Britain mbrahyɛbaguanyi a ɔdze  Richard Drax  a ne nananom ka hɔn a wɔdze binom kɔr nkowaasom mu no ho. Drax ebusua no da ho ara wɔ egyapadze kɛse bi wɔ Barbados; Wɔkyerɛ dɛ sika a Richard Drax wɔ sesei bɔso bɛyɛ dollar ɔpepe ɔha na eduonum. Sɛ Bagua no n’adzeserɛ dɛ wɔnsan mfa nkɔ Barbados no a, aban no abɔ ne tsir mu pɔw dɛ ɔdze asɛm  no bɔkɔ amanaman ntamu asɛndzibea ma woeebua.

Guyana

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

[edit source] In 2007, Guyana President Bharrat Jagdeo formally called on European nations to pay reparations for the slave trade. President Jagdeo stated: "Although some members of the international community have recognized their active role in this despicable system, they need to go step further and support reparations." In 2014, the Parliament of Guyana established a "Reparations Committee of Guyana" to further investigate the impact of slavery and create formal demands for reparations.

Haiti

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Atekel no ankasa: Haiti indemnity controversy

Osiandɛ ɔnam ɔko dzendzen a ɔsɛɛ adze yie a ɔkɔr do wɔ afe 1804 wɔ France mu do ntsi na wɔdze nyaa fahodzi no, asɛm a Haiti dze peer mpatadze akatua no bɛyɛɛ biribi a ohia a nna ekyingye biara nnyi ho. Ber kumaa bi mu no, Haiti a woenya ne fahodzi fofor no, France pɛɛ dɛ wobotua France aban no na hɔn a wɔfaa binom dze hɔn kɔr nkowaasom mu no francs ɔpepe eduokron wɔ “ewisɛm” a wobu dɛ akɔ do osian nkowaa a wɔbɛgyee hɔn ho no ntsi (a wɔfrɛ no fahodzi a wotua ho kaw no) na asaase a wɔadan no esikyire na kɔfe efuw a ɔbrɛ hɔn mfaso na wɔdze agye hɔn man ne fahodzi wɔ kwan a ɔsɛ do. Ekyir koraa no, France sikakorabea ahorow na wotuaa hɔn kaw no wɔ afe 1947 mu.

Afe 2003 mu no, dɛm ber no na Haiti Ɔmampanyin Jean-Bertrand Aristide peer dɛ sɛ France tua mpatadze a ɔbɔbor US dollar ɔpepem eduonu biako a , a sika yi wɔ ndɛ sika francs no bɛyɛ ɔpepe eduokron na wotuaemaa Haiti a ɔmaa wiadze amanaman nyina gyee hɔn too mu no. Aristide bɔbɔɔ France na United States sombo ekyir no dɛ, hɔn na wɔama woetu n’aban egu ma onndzi adze no: ɔkyerɛɛ dɛ dza a ɔgyee no ntsi na wɔyɛɛ dɛm dze tuaa no kaw bi no.

Jamaica

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Afe 2004 mu no, Jamaicafo bi a wɔkaa hɔn ho bɔɔ mu a, nna Rastafari no mu mba no bi ka ho peer dɛ otwar dɛ Europe aman a wɔdze hɔn ho hyɛɛ nkowaatɔn mu no tua sika dze ma Rastafarifo 500,000 a otwra dɛ wɔsan kɛtsena Ethiopia no(a wɔsesee dɛm sika yi na  ɔyɛ pound sterling ɔpepem 72.5, anaa bɛyɛ dollar 150,000 a otwar dɛ wɔdze ma nyimpa bara). Britain aban no anngye hɔn pɛ no annto mu.

Afe 2012 mu no, Jamaica Aban no sanee dze ne bagua a ɔhwɛ mpatadze akatua do sii hɔ bio dɛ wobosusu dɛ aso no ho behia dɛ ɔman no bɔhwehwɛ akyɛpa bi efi Britain hɔ wɔ dwuma a odzii wɔ nkowaatɔn mu no a. Hɔn a wɔsoɛree tsiaa dɛm bagua yi kyerɛɛ dwuma a Britain dzii wɔ nkowaatɔn a wogyaae no mu a ne dɛm ntsi onnhia dɛ Britain dze nkowaasom ho mpatadze akatua biara ma obiara. Afe 2021 mu mo, Jamaica aban no n’adwen kɔr dɛm nsusui yi ho bio dɛ otwar dɛ wonya nkowaasom ho mpatadze akatua bi. Ɔbɔtɔɔ gua dɛ, nna Jamaica aban no rohwehwɛ bɛyɛ pound sterling ɔpepem esuon dɛ mpatadze a wɔdze rutua bɔn a nkorɔfo akɔ mu osian nkowaasom ntsi no ho kaw a hɔn a wɔyɛ nkowaa ewuranom a Britain aban no maa hɔn 20,000,000 no nyina ka ho.

Nkramofo Mu

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Wɔdze mpatadze akatua a wɔdze ma hɔn a abakɔsɛm kyerɛ dɛ wɔyɛ nkowaa wɔ Nkramofo hɔn aman bi mu no bɔtoo gua.

Bea pɔtsee a nkowaa no fi

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Ebibirmu

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Nsɛnhia afofor so: African apologies for the Atlantic slave trade

Afe 1999 mu no, African World Reparations and Repatriation Truth Commission no hwehwɛɛ dɛ Aborɔfo no dze mfe enum botua dollar ɔpepepem 777 ( a afe 2023 mu no ɔnye dollar ɔpepepem ahorow  anan 1.34 yɛ pɛr) ama Ebibifo no.

Fankwa bosoom no mu wɔ afe 2001 mu no, United Nations boaa Wiadze Nyina Nhyiamu a ɔko tsia nyiyimu a ogyina nyimpa ahosu do, nyimpa su mu nyiyimu, ahɔho ho tan na ndzɛmba nkaa ɔma ɔda edzi dɛ wokyir binom ma ɔkɔr do wɔ South Africa kurow a ɔdze Durban mu. Durban Nhwehwɛmu Nhyiamu no boaa egyinasi bi a ɔkyerɛ dɛ Aborɔfo dze Ebibifo kaw osian nyiyimu a ogyina nyimpa ahosu do, nyimpa su mu nyiyimu, ahɔho ho tan na ndzɛmba nkaa ɔma ɔda edzi dɛ wokyir binom a nkowaatɔn dze bae no ntsi. Ebibirmu aman pii mu mpanyimfo foaa dɛm egyinasi yi do. Kan Soafo a Ɔhwɛ Atsɛn Tsenenee do wɔ Sudan mu, a ɔdze Ali Mohamed Osman Yassin, kyerɛɛ dɛ mprenpren ɔhaw ahorow a Ebibifo wɔ mu nyina fir nkowaatɔn a ɔkɔr do no.

Ɔmampanyin n’adwen boa dɛ nkowaasom na nkowaatɔn ho mpatadze akatua , wɔ aber a wodzii  Durban Paamuka no n’afrenhyia a otsia eduonu no.

Ebibirmu Aman Nkabɔmu Kuw na Caricom Global Reparation Fund

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Ebibirmu aman Nkabɔmu Kuw na CARICOM kaa bɔɔ mu tseew Wiadze Nyina Sikakorabea a Ɔhwɛ Mpatadze akatua do wɔ ber a wohyiaa mu wɔ Ghana wɔ Ɔberɛfɛw bosoom no mu wɔ afe 2023 mu. Ghana mampanyin , Nana Akufo-Addo , kae wɔ nhyiamu no ase dɛ “ Ber a nna nkowaasom no rokɔ do nyina no,nna hɛn nkɔdo wɔ sikasɛm mu, amambra mu, na adwendwen mu no nyina ano apem. Nsɛm a ɔfa ebusua ahorow a wɔtsetseew hɔn mu … Innkotum akyerɛ dza awerɛhosɛm a ɔtse dɛm dze bae no ne kɛse dze, naaso otwar dɛ wohu”.

Hɔn A Hɔn Adwen Ammboa

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Hɔn a wɔsoɛree tsiaa nkowaasom ho mpatadze akatua da edzi wɔ nyimpa nyina mu. Nhwehwɛmu a YouGov yɛe wɔ afe 2014 mu no, Amɛrekafo 37% pɛr na nna wɔgye to mu dɛ hɔn a wɔkɔr nkowaasom nyina no, nna nkyɛ otwar dɛ wɔdze sika pata hɔn ber a wɔdzee hɔnho ekyir no. Bio so no,hɔn mu 15% pɛr na wɔgyee too mu dɛ otwar dɛ nkowaa hɔn asefo so ns aka sika bi. Dza ɔbɔtɔɔ gua no kyerɛ dɛ mpaapaamu bi wɔ Amɛrekafo a wɔyɛ Ebibifo na hɔn a wɔyɛ Aborɔfo no ntamu. Nhwehwɛm no tɔwbɔ ara nye dɛ: “Amɛrekafo a wɔyɛ Aborɔfo no mu 6% pɛr na hɔn adwen boa dɛ otwar dɛ nkowaa hɔn asefo no nsa ka sika bi na Amɛreka a wɔyɛ Ebibifo so mu 59% na sɛ ezde toto ho a hɔn adwen boa dɛm adze no. Dɛmara so na aborɔfo no mu 19% – na ebibifo 63%  – na hɔn adwen boa dɛ nwomaasua soronko na adwuma ntsetsee  nhyehyɛɛ bi nkɔ ma nkowaa hɔn asefo no.

Afe 2014 mu no, to Ta-Nehisi Coates n’atekel a ɔdze "The Case for Reparations ho anoyi mu no, nsɛnkyerɛwnyi a wɔfrɛ no Kevin D. Williamson dze atekel bi bɔtoo gua a nna ɔato no dzin “The Case Against Reparations”. Atekel no mu no, Williamson kyerɛ dɛ: Hɔn a otwar dɛ hɔn nsa ka dɛm mpatadze akatua papaapa/ ankasa ankasa no ewuwu dadaadaw”.

Hwɛ Iyinom so

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]
  • Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany (1952)
  • Restitution
  • Legal remedy
  • Reparations (transitional justice)
  • Right to an effective remedy
  • Slavery reparations scam
  • War reparations


Mboaedze

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]
  1. ↑ "Reparations". OHCHR. 15 December 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2025.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations". University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Reparations Section". Black Asheville Demands (BAD). June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  4. ↑ Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered". wlos.com. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Andrews, Kehinde (2024). "The Knife is Still in Our Backs: Reparations Washing and the Limits of Reparatory Justice Campaigns". Development and Change. 55 (4). Wiley: 628–650. doi:10.1111/dech.12848. ISSN 0012-155X.
  6. ↑ "Government apologises for the Netherlands' role in the history of slavery". Government of the Netherlands. 19 December 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  7. ↑ "Mission Statement". Heirs of Slavery. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  8. ↑ Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E. (2004). "Reparations to Africa and the Group of Eminent Persons". Cahiers d'Études africaines. 44 (173–174): 81–97. doi:10.4000/etudesafricaines.4543. S2CID 145746084. Retrieved July 20, 2020. ...a French law of 2001 that recognizes the trans-Atlantic slave trade as a crime against humanity, and the admission by the Belgians in 2002 of their role in the murder of Patrice Lumumba, first President of independent Congo.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Blair 'sorrow' over slave trade | Prime Minister Tony Blair has said he feels 'deep sorrow' for Britain's role in the slave trade". BBC News. 27 November 2006. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  10. ↑ "1837: 1 Victoria c.3: Slavery Compensation Act". British Government. 1837. Retrieved 5 January 2023 – via The Statutes Project.
  11. ↑ BBC History magazine. Bristol Magazines Ltd. June 2010. ISSN 1469-8552.
  12. ↑ Mfomdo wɔ bea edzida no mu: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named naarc
  13. ↑ Brown, Matthew (30 June 2020). "Fact check: United Kingdom finished paying off debts to slave-owning families in 2015". USA TODAY. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  14. ↑ "African Union - Colonialism". Colonialism Reparation. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  15. ↑ Grant, Bernie. "Reparations or Bust!" (PDF). Information Sheet No. 3. Africa Reparations Movement (UK). pp. 1–10. ...edited version of a speech he gave in Birmingham on 12th April...
  16. ↑ "Abuja Proclamation – Early Day Motions". edm.parliament.uk. UK Parliament. 10 May 1993. Retrieved 2020-07-09.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Africa Reparations Movement (UK)". Archives Hub. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  18. ↑ "Stephen A. Small". African American Studies. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  19. ↑ "Professor Stephen Small". National Museums Liverpool. 25 August 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  20. ↑ African Reparations Movement records 1963 – 2000 (in English). The National Archives. This record is held by the Bishopsgate Institute.
  21. ↑ Stanford-Xosei, Esther (March 2019). "The Long Road of Pan-African Liberation to Reparatory Justice". In Adi, Hakim (ed.). Black British History : New Perspectives. London: Zed. pp. 176–198. ISBN 978-1786994257.
  22. ↑ "Slave descendants file $1 billion lawsuit against companies with alleged ties to slave trade". Jet. 150 (17): 36–37. 2004.
  23. ↑ Walsh, Conal (27 March 2004). "Slave descendants sue Lloyd's for billions". The Guardian (in British English). ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  24. ↑ "Slave descendants to sue Lloyd's". BBC News, 29 March 2004. Retrieved on 15 October 2009.
  25. ↑ Stamp, Gavin (20 March 2007). "Counting the cost of the slave trade". BBC News news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  26. ↑ "Blair 'sorry' for UK slavery role". BBC News, 14 March 2007. Accessed 15 March 2007.
  27. ↑ Muir, Hugh (24 August 2007). "Livingstone weeps as he apologises for slavery". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Baker, Nick (11 May 2023). "These British 'heirs of slavery' are trying to make amends for past wrongs". ABC News (Australia). Retrieved 11 May 2023.
  29. ↑ "About Us". Heirs of Slavery. 26 April 2023. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  30. ↑ "United States of America 1789 (rev. 1992)". Constitute Project.
  31. ↑ King, Wilma (2004). "Slavery, United States". Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood: In History and Society. 3: 757–758.
  32. ↑ Gambino, Lauren (June 20, 2020). "Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?". The Guardian. Retrieved July 20, 2020. Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.
  33. ↑ Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer". The Washington Post.
  34. ↑ Conyers, John (3 October 2013). "My Reparations Bill – HR 40", IBW21 (Institute of the Black World).
  35. ↑ 114th Congress (2016). "All Bill Information for H.R.40 – Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act". Congress.Gov.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Robinson, Randall (1999). "He Drove the First U.S Stake in South African Apartheid". Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. 24: 58.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Six White Congressmen Endorse Reparations for Slavery". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (27): 20–21. 2000-01-01. doi:10.2307/2678973. JSTOR 2678973.
  38. ↑ Craemer, Thomas (21 April 2015). "Estimating Slavery Reparations: Present Value Comparisons of Historical Multigenerational Reparations Policies". Social Science Quarterly. 96 (2): 639–655. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12151.
  39. ↑ Myers, Kristin (27 June 2019). "Slavery reparations could carry a $17 trillion price tag". Yahoo. Yahoo Finance. Retrieved June 28, 2019.
  40. ↑ Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 2014). "The Case for Reparations". The Atlantic.
  41. ↑ "Report of the Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent on its mission to the United States of America" (PDF). US Human Rights Network. August 18, 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
  42. ↑ Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice".
  43. ↑ "Rapper T.I. Demands $44 Trillion in Slavery Reparations". Pulptastic. July 24, 2020.
  44. ↑ Buser, Andreas (2017). "Colonial Injustices and the Law of State Responsibility: The CARICOM Claim to Compensate Slavery and (Native) Genocide". Heidelberg Journal of International Law: 91–115. SSRN 3050647.
  45. ↑ Ramjeet, Oscar (2009-04-16). "CARICOM countries will speak with one voice in meetings with US and Canadian leaders". Caribbean Net News. Archived from the original on July 13, 2016. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
  46. ↑ "Spanish agreed as CARICOM second language". www.landofsixpeoples.com. Archived from the original on 2021-08-18. Retrieved 2020-08-04.
  47. ↑ "Who we are". Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Archived from the original on 2020-08-14. Retrieved 2020-08-04.
  48. ↑ "UWI principal wants CARICOM to seek reparation for slavery". Jamaica Observer. February 15, 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-02-15.
  49. ↑ "The New York Carib News". New York Carib News -.
  50. ↑ "Homepage". Caribbean Reparations Commission. 10 August 2016. Archived from the original on 31 July 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  51. ↑ "About Us". Heirs of Slavery. 26 April 2023. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  52. ↑ "United States of America 1789 (rev. 1992)". Constitute Project.
  53. ↑ King, Wilma (2004). "Slavery, United States". Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood: In History and Society. 3: 757–758.
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