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Jim Crow laws

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Jim Crow laws
Subclass oflaw Sesa mu
Part ofJim Crow Era Sesa mu
Facet ofracial segregation in the United States Sesa mu
Named afterJim Crow Sesa mu
CountryUnited States Sesa mu
Applies to jurisdictionUnited States Sesa mu
Start time1870s Sesa mu
End time1965 Sesa mu
Has goalracial segregation Sesa mu

Nna Jim Crow mbra no yɛ ɔman na mpɔtamu hɔ mbra a wɔdze bae wɔ United States Anaafo afamu wɔ afeha a ɔtɔ do 19 n;ewiei na afeha a ɔtɔ so 20 n'ahyɛse a ɔhyɛɛ mbusuakuw mu mpaapaamu mu dzen, "Jim Crow" yɛ kasafua a wɔdze bu Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo enyimtsia.[1] Wɔdaan Jim Crow mbra a otwa tun no wɔ afe 1965 mu.[2] Nna mbusuakuw mu mpaapaamu ho nhyehyɛɛ a wɔahyɛ da ara ayɛ nye dza onnyi mbra mu wɔ United States mbea afofor so, ber mpo a nna aman pii a wonnyi Anaafo afa mu abra nyiyimu wɔ ɔmanfo daber na ambatow mu.[3][4] Aborɔfo a wɔdɔɔ so wɔ ɔman no ne mbrahyɛbagua mu no na wɔhyɛ mbra wɔ Anaafo afamu na wɔhyehyɛɛ mbra dze gyee hɔn fahodzi na wɔayi amambu na sikasɛm mu mfaso a Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo nyae wɔ Ɔdansi ber no mu no efi hɔ.[5] Lily-white no kuw a ogyinae no so boaa mbusuakuw mu mpaapaamu a ɔkɔr do no.[6]

Ne yɛ mu no, Jim Crow mbra ahorow hyɛe dɛ wɔmfa mbusuakuw mu mpaapaamu nkɔ ɔmamfo adan nyina mu wɔ nkan Amerika Aman Nkabɔmu Aman no mu na aman afofor bi mu, ofitsi afe1870 no mu. Wodzii Jim Crow mbra ahorow no do wɔ afe 1896 mu wɔ Plessy v. Ferguson n'asɛndzii no mu, a Asɛndzibea no dze ne mbra nkyerɛkyerɛ a “ɔtsew no ho naaso ɔyɛ pɛr” a ɔfa adan a wɔdze bɛma Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo ho no too hɔ. Wɔdze ɔmamfo no faa nwomasua mu ne tsitsiriw fitsi ber a wɔdze bɔbɔɔ adze wɔ Anaafo afa mu ne fa kɛse noara wɔ Ɔmanko no ekyir wɔ 1861–1865 mu. Ɔreyɛ ayɛ dɛ mbra a ɔfa awarfo ho no amma Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo nyina anntow ambatow wɔ Anaafo afa mu na ɔmaa wɔamma obiara annyɛ ananmusinyi biara wɔ ɔman no mu.

Ɔwɔ mu dɛ wɔ nsusui mu no na mpaapaamu nkyerɛkyerɛ a "ɔyɛ pɛr" no dzi ɔmamfo ndzɛmba na akwantu do kwan dze, naaso nna mbea a wɔdze ma Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo no suar ber nyina na nna wonnya sika pii ber a wɔdze toto adan a wɔdze ma Amerikafo aborɔfo ho no; ɔtɔ da bi a, nna adan biara nnyi hɔ mma ebibifo mpɔtamu hɔfo koraa.[7][8] Nna kwan kɛse noara na ɔda ɔno na pɛryɛ ntamu , dɛ mbrahyɛ kuw no, Jim Crow dze sikasɛm, nwomasua, amambu na asetsena mu ɔhaw ahorow na ɔman ba a ɔtɔ do ebien sii hɔ maa Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo dodow noara a wɔtse United States.[7][8][9]Ber a wɔtseew National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) kuw no wɔ afe 1909 no n'ekyir no, ɔdze no ho hyɛɛ ɔmanfo ɔsɔretsia a ɔkɔr do na ɔsatu ahorow a wɔdze tsiaa Jim Crow mbra ahorow, nye dza wɔfrɛ no "tsetsewmu naaso wɔyɛ pɛr" nkyerɛkyerɛ no mu.

Afe 1954 mu no, U.S. Asɛndzibea no kaa dɛ ɔman skuul ahorow a wɔpaapae mu (a ɔman no boa) no nnyi mbra mu ber a nna woridzi Brown v. n'asɛm no.[10][11][12] Board of Education of Topeka. Aman bi mu no, ɔgyee mfe pii ansaana wɔdze dɛm egyinasi yi ridzi dwuma, ber a Warren Asɛndzibea no kɔr do buu atsɛn tsiaa Jim Crow mbra wɔ nsɛm afofor tse dɛ Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964) mu.[13] Yɛreka no dodow mu a, Civil Rights Act of 1964 no taa dan Jim Crow mbra a aka no. Wɔtaa dan Anaafo afamu ɔman no ne mbra a ɔko tsia ebusua a wɔdze hɔnho hyɛ mu no wɔ afe1967 asɛm a ɔnye Loving v. Virginia ridzi no mu.

Abɔse

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Yebotum aka dɛ ber a odzi kan wɔdze asɛmfua "Jim Crow mmara" dzii dwuma yɛ afe 1884 mu wɔ atsesɛm krataa mu asɛm bi a ɔbɔ mbrahyɛbagua ekyingyegye ho asɛm tsiaba mu.[14] Kasafua no pue wɔ afe 1892 mu wɔ New York Times asɛm bi a ɔfa Louisiana a ɔhwehwɛ dɛ wɔdze keteke kar a wɔatsew hɔn ho no mu.[15][16] Wɔtaa ka dɛ asɛmfua "Jim Crow" n'abɔse fi "Jump Jim Crow", ndwom na asaw mfonyin a ɔfa ebibifo ho a borɔnyi ɔgofoba Thomas D. Rice a ɔkokwaaw n'enyim tuntum yɛe, a odzii kan yɛɛ no ​​wɔ afe 1828 mu. Osiandɛ Rice gyee dzin ntsi, nna Jim Crow abɛyɛ asɛm a ɔyɛ enyimtisabu a ɔkyerɛ "Negro" wɔ afe 1838 mu. Ber a Anaafo afa mu mbrahyɛbagua ahorow no hyehyɛɛ mbusuakuw mu mpaapaamu ho mbra a wɔdze tsia Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo wɔ afeha a ɔtɔ do 19 n'ewiei no, na wɔbɛfrɛɛ dɛm mbra ahorow yi Jim Crow mbra.[15]

Farbaa

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

Afe January 1865 mu no, mbrahyɛbagua no dze nsesa bi a ɔbɛma woetu nkowaasom wɔ United States no ho nhyehyɛɛ mae na wɔgyee too mu dɛ Nsesa a ɔto do Du ebiasa wɔ December 18, 1865 afe no mu.[17]

Cover of an early edition of "Jump Jim Crow" sheet music (c. 1832)
Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867

Nsiesie ber a ɔbae wɔ afe 1865–1877 mu no, aban mbra dze ɔmamfo hokwan ahorow ho ahobambɔ mae wɔ U.S. Anaafo afa mu maa hɔn a wɔadze hɔnho efi nkowaasom mu, Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo a nna wɔyɛ nkowaa, na ebibifo kakraa bi a nna wɔdze hɔnho ansaana ɔko no reba. 1870 afe no mu no, Democratfo san nyaa tum wɔ Anaafo afa mu mbrahyɛbaguafo mu ber a basabasayɛfo etuatsewfo kuw a wɔaka abɔ mu,[18] tse dɛ Ku Klux Klan, White League, na Red Shirts sɛe Republicanfo nhyehyɛɛ, tuu Republicanfo mpanyimfo, tui fii kurow no mu, na wokum ebibifo ambatofo dɛ ehunahuna kwan a wɔfa do siw ebibifo ambatofo no ano kwan.[19] Wɔdze ambatowfo nsisi kɛse so dzii dwuma. Asɛm bi mu no, etuatsew anaa etuatsew a ɔkɔr do pefee wɔ North Carolina mpoano no maa woyii Republican kuw no mu mpanyimfo na ananmusifo mpanyimfo a wɔpaaw hɔn wɔ ka bi na menka bi kwan do no fii hɔ, na wɔhwehwɛɛ hɔn anaadɛ wɔtaa hɔn fii hɔ. Nna Amrado ambatow aban no na wɔagye ho ekyingye wɔ Louisiana mfe pii, na basabasayɛ a wɔyɛe tsiaa Amerikafo ebibifo no kɔr sor wɔ ɔsatu ahorow mu fi 1868 rokɔ no.[20]

Nsiesie a wɔyɛe wɔ 1877 mu dɛ wobenya Anaafo afamu mboa wɔ amampanyinfo ambatow no mu no maa aban noyii ɔman no mu aseraafo a wotwa tun no fii Anaafo afa mu.[21] Nna Democratfo Aborɔfo asan enya amambu mu tum wɔ Anaafo afa mu mantɔw biara mu. Dɛm Anaafo afa mu no, aborɔfo, "Agyefo" aban ne mbra Jim Crow mbra ahorow, na ɔtsetseew ɔman no mu nyimpa mu wɔ mbra kwan do. Nna Jim Crow mbra ahorow no yɛ tumdzi amambu a wɔdze kyerɛ ebusuakuw kor pɔtsee bi a wɔada no edzi.[22]


Nna wɔda ho ara paw ebibifo kɔ mpɔtamu hɔ edwumayɛbea ahorow mu wɔ afe 1880 no mu wɔ mpɔtamu hɔ mbea a ebibifo dɔɔ so, naaso wosiiw hɔn ambatow ano kwan wɔ ɔman no mu. Aman no hyɛɛ mbra dɛ wɔbɛma ambatowfo dzinkyerɛw na ambatow ho mbra ayɛ anohyeto kɛse, na ma ofii mu bae nye dɛ ebibifo dodow noara ne aborɔfo ehiafo pii amambu mu kyɛfa a wonyae no hyɛɛ ase dɛ no do retsew.[23][24] Afe 1890 na 1910 ntamu no, nkan Confederate aman du-biako no mu du, a ɔhyɛɛ ase wɔ Mississippi, yɛɛ mbrahyɛbagua fofor anaa nsesa ahorow a ɔmaa ebibifo dodow noara na aborɔfo ehiafo mpempem pii nyaa akwanya ber a wɔkaa tow ahorow bɔbɔɔ mu, akenkan ne akyerɛw na ntsease ho sɔhwɛ ahorow, n ahwehwɛdze ahorow a ɔfa tsenabea na kyerɛwtohɔ so a wɔaka abɔmu do.[23][24] Nananom nsɛm maa aborɔfo binom a wonyim akenkan na akyerɛw kwan ma wɔtoow amba naaso amma ebibifo dodow noara ahotɔ biara.[25]

Nyimpa dodow a wɔtow amba no do tsewee kɛse wɔ Anaafo afamu ɔnam dɛm nhyehyɛɛ no ho ntsi. Ekɔ Louisiana a, nyimpa dodow 1900 no, nna ebibifo a wɔtow amba no hɔn do tsewee baa 5,320 wɔ nyimpa dodow a wɔkyerɛɛw hɔn edzin no, ɔwɔ mu dɛ nna hɔn na wɔdɔɔ so wɔ ɔman no mu dze . Odur afe 1910 mu no, ebibifo 730 pɛ na wɔkyerɛɛw hɔn edzin, na onndu ebibifo a wɔfata dɛ wɔtow amba no mu 0.5% mpo.[26] "Ɔman no nsɔr nsɔr ahorow 60 no mu 27 mu no, wɔannkyerɛw ebibifo ambatowfo kor mpo ne dzin bio; wɔ asɔre ahorow 9 fofor mu no, ebibifo ambatowfo kor pɛ na wɔkyerɛɛw ne dzin. Carolina n'Anaafo afamu aman afofor no kyerɛ dɛ, woyii ebibifo ambatowfo hɔn edzin fii ambatow krataa no mu fitsi afe 1896 kɛpeem 1904. Hɔn a nna wɔyɛ adantamfo wɔ ahodze mu no, hɔn nkɔdo berɛɛ adze. Ekɔ Carolina n'Anaafo nye Etsifi aman bi do a, ebibifo binom hun amandze osiandɛ nna wɔmma wonnhu dza ɔrokɔdo wɔ amambu no mu. "[ Mfe du a nna wonnyi hokwan mu no, nna aborɔfo tumdzi ɔsatu no eyi ebibifo adzefo a wɔtɔ do ebien no hɔn ho asɛm efi hɔn tsir mu ."Ekɔ Albama a, wogyee aborɔfo ehiafo mpempem du so hɔn fahodzi fii hɔn nsamu, ɔwɔ mu dɛ ahyɛse no nna mbrahyɛbaguafo ahyɛ hɔn bɔ dɛ akwansiwdze fofor no rinnsiw hɔn kwan dze.

Hɔn a woenntum anntow amba no mfata dɛ wɔsom wɔ asɛndzi baguafo mu na worunntum so nnyɛ edwuma mma mpɔtamu hɔ edwumayɛbea ahorow no mu biara. Woyii hɔnho fii amambu mu koraa, osiandɛ nna worunntum nnya nsunsuando biara wɔ ɔman no ne mbrahyɛbaguafo nsɛm mu, na wobuu whɔn enyi guu hɔn enyigyedze do. Ber a nna Reconstruction mbrahyɛbaguafo dze aban skuul ahorow esi hɔ ber a odzi wɔ Anaafo afamu aman dodow noara mu no, nna sika a wɔdze ma mbofra a wɔyɛ ebibifo no nndzi mu sɛ yɛdze toto skuul ahorow a mmbofra aborɔfo wɔ mu no ho a, ber mpo a wosusuw ho wɔ ɔko no ekyir wɔ Anaafo afamu ber a asaaba no bo kɔr do kɔr famu ma ɔmaa kuayɛ mu sikasɛm so baa famu no.[27]

Tse dɛ skuul ahorow no, nna wonnya sika pii mma ɔmamfo nwomakorabea ahorow a wɔdze ma ebibifo, sɛ ɔwɔ hɔ koraa a, nna wɔtaa dze nwoma a wɔdze edzi dwuma dada nye ndzɛmba afofor gu mu.[28] Wɔammfa dɛm ndzɛmba yinom amma Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo wɔ Anaafo afamu kesii mfe du a odzi kan wɔ afeha a ɔtɔ do 20 no mu.[29] Jim Crow ber no nyina mu no, nna nwomakorabea ahorow wɔ mbea bi nkotsee.[30] Ansana afeha a ɔtɔ do eduonu reba no, nna nwomakorabea dodow noara a wɔdze sii hɔ maa Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo no yɛ skuul na nwomakorabea a wɔaka abɔ mu.[30] Wɔhyehyɛɛ aban nwomakorabea pii maa Europa-Amerikafo na Afrika-Amerikafo a wɔboaa Europafo na Afrikafo-Amerikafo nyina wɔ dɛm ber yi mu osian adzefo a wɔtɔ do ebien mu mpanyimfo hɔn dwumadzi a wɔdze boa a ofi Carnegie Kuw no hɔ bae ntsi.

Tsebea ahorow bi mu no, nhyehyɛɛ a ɔdze mpontu ba a wɔyɛe dɛ wɔdze wɔbɛtsew ambatow mu nsisi do, tse dɛ Eight Box Law a ɔwɔ South Carolina no, koe tsiaa ebiifo na aborɔfo ambatowfo a nna wɔyɛ ekruntufo, osiandɛ nna wonntum nndzi akwankyerɛ no ekyir.[31] Ber a nna ntsetsewmu a ɔda Africafo a wɔyɛ Amerikafo na aborɔfo nyimpa dodow no ntamu no rebɛyɛ mbra a wɔagye ato mu wɔ Progressive Era ber do no, (afe 1890–1920 no) mu no, nna ɔrebɛyɛ amandze so. Nsɛm a Jim Crow mbra no mmbra ebibifo dɛ mma wɔmmfa hɔnho nnhyɛ agodzi anaa ahomgye agodzi mu mpo no, nna amambra a wɔatsew hɔnho abɛyɛ dza ebu do.[15]

Jim Crow ne nsɛm mu no, amampanyin amba a wɔtowee wɔ afe 1912 mu no, wɔyɛe ma otsiaa Afrikafo a wɔyɛ Amerikafo no hɔn pɛ. Ebibifo dodowara a wɔyɛ Amerikafo no nna wɔda ho ara tse Anaafo afamu, ber a nna wɔagye hɔn hokwan efi hɔn nsamu koraa, dɛm ntsi wonntum nntow amba koraa.[32] Ber a ambatow ho sika na enyibuei ho akadze siiw ehiafo anaa ekruntufo dodowara ho kwan dɛ wɔbɔtow amba no, dɛm nhyehyɛɛ ahorow yi dze akwan bi too hɔ maa Europafo nna wɔyɛ Amerikafo dɛ wobotum edu ndzɛmba a wɔdze egu akwn mu no ho. Yɛdze Oklahoma hɔ reyɛ mfatoho no, obiara a nna ɔfata dɛ ɔtow amba biara wɔ afe 1866 mu no, anaa dɛ ɔnye obi a ɔfata dɛ ɔtow amba wɔ afe 1866 no bi wɔ ebusuabɔ no (tse dɛ "nanasɛm"), woyi no fi enyibuei ahwehwɛdze no mu, na mbom mbanyimfo ara a wonyaa akwanya no ansaana dɛm afe no reba no yɛ aborɔfo anaa Europa-Amerikafo. Woyii Europa Amerikafo no fii enyibuei nsɔhwɛ no mu, na wɔnam mbrakwan do yii Amerikafo no sii nkyɛn.[33]

Woodrow Wilson yɛ Democratnyi a wɔpaaw no fii New Jersey, naaso wɔwoo no na wɔtsetsee no wɔ Anaafo afamju, na nna ɔyɛ ɔmampanyin a odzi kan a wɔwoo no wɔ Anaafo afamu wɔ Ɔmanko ekyir ber no mu. Ɔpaaw Anaafo Afamfo kɔr n'amambukuw no mu. Binom hyɛɛ ase dɛ wɔrohwehwɛ edwumayɛbea ahorow a wɔatsew hɔn ho ntsɛm ara, ɔwɔ mu dɛ nna wɔaka Washington kurow no, D.C., na aban edwumayɛbea ahorow abɔ mu fi Ɔmanko no ekyir dze. Afe 1913 mu no, wɔtsee dɛ Sikakorabea Ɔkyerɛwfo William Gibbs McAdoo – a Ɔmampanyin no apaw no – rekyerɛ n'adwen wɔ mbea a ebibifo na aborɔfo a wɔbɔ mu yɛ edwuma wɔ aban edwumayɛbea kor mu ho: "Metse nka dɛ ɔwɔ dɛ iyi kɔ tsia mbaa aborɔfo no wɔ. Aso siantsir bi wɔ hɔ a ɔwɔ dɛ aborɔfo mbasiafo no nnya aborɔfo mbasiafo a wɔdze mfir ahorow yɛ edwuma anaa?[34]

Wilson n'amambu no dze mpaapaamu baa aban edwumayɛbea ahorow mu, ɔmmfa ho Afrikafo-Amerikafo akandzifo na aborɔfo nkɔdo kuw a wɔwɔ etsifi na mfinimfini atɔe mu no hɔn kasa tsia no.[35] Ɔpaaw Anaafo afamu amanyɛfo osian n’ankasa ne gyidzi a no mu yɛ dzen dɛ mbusuakuw mu mpaapaamu no yɛ dza oye ma ebibifo na Europa Amerikafo nyina ntsi.[36] Great Reunion a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 1913 mu wɔ Gettysburg no ase no, Wilson kasae kyerɛɛ nyimpadɔm no wɔ July 4, Abraham Lincoln mpaemuka a ɔkae dɛ “wɔabɔ nyimpa nyina pɛ” no.

Hwɛ mbrɛ kuw no edzi mu prɛkopɛr na hwɛ mbrɛ ɔsom bo ma hɛn nyina fa, hwɛ mbrɛ ekyingye biara nnyi ho, hwɛ mbrɛ osi wɔ ayamuyie na enyimnyam fa, ber a wɔdze ɔman biara aka iyi ho no, hɛn ebusua kɛse a mberantsɛfo a wɔdze hɔnho wɔ mu no![37]

Nna ɔnye Wilson bɔ ebira koraa , Washington Bee samufo bi bisae dɛ bi a 1913 mu "nkabɔmu bio" no yɛ hɔn a wɔkoe maa "nkowaasom asetɔr" no nkabɔ mu bio anaadɛ hɔn a wɔkoe dɛ "wɔbɛma nkowaasom akɔ do atsena hɔ na mprempren wɔdze fi na ekyingye biara a wonyim dɛ ɔyɛ ndaadaa" ridzi dwuma dze akyerɛ fahdzi dɛ edwuma a orunntum nnyɛ yie[37]. Abakɔsɛm kyerɛwfo David W. Blight hun dɛ "Asomdwe Afahyɛ" a Wilson dzii enyim wɔ Gettysburg wɔ afe 1913 mu no "yɛ Jim Crow nkabɔmu bio,na aborɔfo tumdzi no na ama ɔdze koomyɛ no aba,mpanyimfo a wɔdeda dwumadzi ano a yennhu hɔn.[37]

Ekɔ Texas a, nkurow dodowara na wɔpaaw mpaapaamu mbra a wɔyɛe no wɔ afe 1910 na 1920 mu no.[37] Mbra ketsee no hwehwɛe dɛ wɔdze nsubura na eguaree a wɔatsew hɔn ho besisi hɔ. Amerikafo a wɔyɛ ebibifo a woeyi hɔn efi mu no so nyaa mboa wɔ Republicanfo lily-white kuw no mu.[38]


Mboaedze

[sesa mu | sesa ekyirsɛm]

.

  1. ↑ Fremon, David (2000). The Jim Crow Laws and Racism in American History. Enslow. ISBN 0766012972.
  2. ↑ Schmermund, Elizabeth (2016). Reading and Interpreting the Works of Harper Lee. Enslow Publishing, LLC. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-0-7660-7914-4.
  3. ↑ Bubar, Joe (March 9, 2020). "The Jim Crow North", Upfront Magazine - Scholastic. Retrieved June 7, 2021.
  4. ↑ Discrimination in Access to Public Places: A Survey of State and Federal Accommodations Laws, 7 N.Y.U. Rev.L. & Soc.Change 215, 238 (1978).
  5. ↑ Bartlett, Bruce (2008). Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party's Buried Past. St. Martin's Press. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-0-230-61138-2.
  6. ↑ Heersink, Boris; Jenkins, Jeffery A. (April 2020). "Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South". Studies in American Political Development (in English). 34 (1): 71–90. doi:10.1017/S0898588X19000208. ISSN 0898-588X. S2CID 213551748.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Perdue, Theda (October 28, 2011). "Legacy of Jim Crow for Southern Native Americans". C-SPAN. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Lowery, Malinda Maynor (2010). Lumbee Indians in the Jim Crow South: Race, Identity, and the Making of a Nation. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 0–339. ISBN 9780807833681. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  9. ↑ Wolfley, Jeanette (1990). "Jim Crow, Indian Style: The Disenfranchisement of Native Americans" (PDF). Indian Law Review. 16 (1): 167–202. doi:10.2307/20068694. hdl:1903/22633. JSTOR 20068694. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  10. ↑ "Brown v. Board of Education". Landmark Supreme Court Cases. Retrieved 2019-09-29.
  11. ↑ "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka". Oyez (in English). Retrieved 2019-09-29.
  12. ↑ "Two Landmark Decisions in the Fight for Equality and Justice". National Museum of African American History and Culture (in English). 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2019-09-29.
  13. ↑ "Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States". Oyez (in English). Retrieved 2019-09-29.
  14. ↑ "Congressional". Sioux City Journal. December 18, 1884. p. 2.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. (2001), The Strange Career of Jim Crow. p. 7.
  16. ↑ "Louisiana's 'Jim Crow' Law Valid". The New York Times. New York. December 21, 1892. p. 1. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 6, 2011. New Orleans, Dec 20. – The Supreme Court yesterday declared constitutional the law passed two years ago and known as the 'Jim Crow' law, making it compulsory on railroads to provide separate cars for black people.
  17. ↑ Jaynes, Gerald D. (2005). Encyclopedia of African American Society. Sage. pp. 864–. ISBN 978-0-7619-2764-8.
  18. ↑ Milewski, Melissa (2017). Litigating Across the Color Line: Civil Cases Between Black and White Southerners from the End of Slavery to Civil Rights. Oxford University Press. pp. 47–. ISBN 978-0-19-024919-9.
  19. ↑ Harriot, Michael (2021). "Reconstruction". In Kendi, Ibram X.; Blain, Keisha N. (eds.). Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019. New York: One World. pp. 234–238. ISBN 978-0-593-13404-7.
  20. ↑ Perman, Michael (2009). Pursuit of Unity: A Political History of the American South. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 138–. ISBN 978-0-8078-3324-7.
  21. ↑ Woodward, C. Vann, and McFeely, William S. The Strange Career of Jim Crow. 2001, p. 6.
  22. ↑ Parker, Christopher Sebastian; Towler, Christopher C. (2019-05-11). "Race and Authoritarianism in American Politics". Annual Review of Political Science (in English). 22 (1): 503–519. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519. ISSN 1094-2939.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Perman, Michael. Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001, Introduction.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Kousser, J. Morgan,The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
  25. ↑ Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–36.
  26. ↑ Mfomdo wɔ bea edzida no mu: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Pildes
  27. ↑ Reese, W. (2010). History, Education, and the Schools (in English). Springer. p. 145. ISBN 978-0230104822.
  28. ↑ Reese, W. (2010). History, Education, and the Schools (in English). Springer. p. 145. ISBN 978-0230104822.
  29. ↑ Battles, D. M. (2009). The History of Public Library Access for African Americans in the South, or, Leaving Behind the Plow. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Fultz, M. (2006). "Black Public Libraries in the South in the Era of De Jure Segregation". Libraries & The Cultural Record, 41(3), 338.
  31. ↑ Holt, Thomas (1979). Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
  32. ↑ Dittmer, John (1980). Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920. University of Illinois Press. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-252-00813-9.
  33. ↑ Tomlins, Christopher L. The United States Supreme Court: The Pursuit of Justice. 2005, p. 195.
  34. ↑ King, Desmond. Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the US Federal Government. 1995, p. 3.
  35. ↑ Berkin, Carol; Christopher Miller; Robert Cherny; James Gormly (2011). Making America: A History of the United States. Cengage Learning. pp. 578–. ISBN 978-0-495-90979-8.
  36. ↑ Schulte Nordholt, J. W. [nl], and Rowen, Herbert H., Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace. 1991, pp. 99–100.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Blight, David W. (2001), Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory, pp. 9–11.
  38. ↑ Heersink, Boris; Jenkins, Jeffery A. (2020-01-06). "Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South". Studies in American Political Development (in English). 34 (1): 71–90. doi:10.1017/S0898588X19000208. ISSN 0898-588X. S2CID 213551748.
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